All the Words in the English Language (Part 3)

25 pairs of English words we often confuse [Part 3]

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Still, the spelling was confusing because of the debates that went on during this period, for example many words wound up being spelt as to their roots like the words "debt" and "doubt" which came from the French language. The word "rhyme" was given an "h" simply because the word "rhythm" already had one.

Around this time the Great Vowel Shift also took place, which altered spoken English from the Old English pronunciation to a more modern sounding form. The possession of an English bible had become illegal once more and William Tyndale left the country to write his translation of the bible from the original Hebrew and Greek version, which he published in Many of his sayings are still used today, including, "scapegoat," "the apple of mine eye," "eat, drink and be merry," and words such as "beautiful" and "zealous.

In time, King James I would create an official version of the bible which had become wide spread with various versions. This bible deliberately used words like "ye" and "thou," which were no longer in common use, to create the sense that the words written would appear to be ancient, to have authority. The series ran in The series and the book are cast as an adventure story, or the biography of English as if it were a living being, covering the history of the language from its modest beginnings around AD as a minor Germanic dialect to its rise as a truly established global language.

In the television series, Bragg explains the origins and spelling of many words based on the times in which they were introduced into the growing language that would eventually become modern English. Melvyn Bragg travels through Britain to tell the story of how an insignificant German dialect, which only arrived in the country in the fifth century, evolved into a language which is now spoken and understood by more people than any other around the world.

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We trace English from its humble roots to its flowering in the writing of Shakespeare and his contemporaries. English is a global language. Every day, in cities all around the world, English is used in encounters between people of different countries. It is estimated that well over a thousand million people around the world speak, or have a working understanding of, English.

This is its story. It's a story that really reads like an adventure of extraordinary survival, invasion, near extinction on more than one occasion, and astonishing flexibility. Birth of a Language 2. English Goes Underground 3. In parsing, he finds a world of " accommodatives ;" as, "John is more than five years older than William. Here he calls the whole phrase " more than five years " "a secondary adname " i. But, in the phrase, " more than five years afterwards," he would call the same words "a secondary modifier ;" i.

And, in the phrase, " more than five years before the war," he would call them "a secondary relative ;" i. And so of other phrases innumerable. His cases are five, two of which are new, "the Independent " and "the Twofold case. His code of syntax has two sorts of rules, Analytical and Synthetical. The former are professedly seventeen in number; but, many of them consisting of two, three, or four distinct parts, their real number is more properly thirty-four. The latter are reckoned forty-five; but if we count their separate parts, they are fifty-six: I shall not particularize their faults.

All of them are whimsically conceived and badly written. In short, had the author artfully designed to turn English grammar into a subject of contempt and ridicule, by as ugly a caricature of it as he could possibly invent, he could never have hit the mark more exactly than he has done in this " new theory "--this rash production, on which he so sincerely prides himself. This scheme necessarily demands a minute comparison not only of the several languages themselves, but also of the various grammars in which their principles, whether general or particular, are developed.

For by no other means can it be ascertained to what extent uniformity of this kind will be either profitable to the learner, or consistent with truth. Some books have been published, which, it is pretended, are thus accommodated to one an other, and to the languages of which they treat. But, in view of the fact, that the Latin or the Greek grammars now extant, to say nothing of the French, Spanish, and others, are almost as various and as faulty as the English, I am apprehensive that this is a desideratum not soon to be realized,--a design more plausible in the prospectus, than feasible in the attempt.

At any rate, the grammars of different languages must needs differ as much as do the languages themselves, otherwise some of their principles will of course be false; and we have already seen that the nonobservance of this has been a fruitful source of error in respect to English syntax. The achievement, however, is not altogether impossible, if a man of competent learning will devote to it a sufficient degree of labour.

But the mere revising or altering of some one grammar in each language, can scarcely amount to any thing more than a pretence of improvement. Waiving the pettiness of compiling upon the basis of an other man's compilation, the foundation of a good grammar for any language, must be both deeper and broader than all the works which Professor Bullions has selected to build upon: Adam's " Rudiments of Latin and English Grammar ;" for the English, than Murray's " English Grammar ," or Lennie's " Principles of English Grammar ;" which last work, in fact, the learned gentleman preferred, though he pretends to have mended the code of Murray.

But, certainly, Lennie never supposed himself a copyist of Murray; nor was he to much extent an imitator of him, either in method or in style. These are admirable professions for a critical author to publish; especially, as every rule or principle of General Grammar, condemning as it must whoever violates it, cannot but "be in perfect harmony with" every thing that is true. In the exercises for parsing appended to his Etymology , the Doctor furnishes twenty-five Rules of Syntax , which, he says, "are not intended to be committed to memory, but to be used as directions to the beginner in parsing the exercises under them.

Then, for his syntax proper, he copies from Lennie, with some alterations, thirty-four other rules , nine of which are double, and all are jumbled together by both authors, without any regard to the distinction of concord and government, so common in the grammars of the dead languages, and even, so far as I can discover, without any principle of arrangement whatever. They profess indeed to have placed those rules first, which are eaisest [sic--KTH] to learn, and oftenest to be applied; but the syntax of articles , which even on this principle should have formed the first of the series, is placed by Lennie as the thirty-fourth rule, and by his amender as the thirty-second.

To all this complexity the latter adds twenty-two Special Rules , with an abundance of " Notes " " Observations " and " Remarks " distinguished by these titles, on some principle which no one but the author can understand. Lastly, his method of syntactical parsing is not only mixed up with etymological questions and answers, but his directions for it, with their exemplification , are perplexingly at variance with his own specimen of the performance.

See his book, pages and So much for this grand scheme. There is many a grammar now extant, concerning which a truly critical reader may know more at first sight, than ever did he that made it. What such a reader will be inclined to rate beneath criticism, an other perhaps will confidently pronounce above it. If my remarks are just, let the one approve them for the other's sake. For what becomes of the teaching of grammar, when that which is received as the most excellent method, must be exempted from censure by reason of its utter worthlessness?

And what becomes of Universal Syntax, when the imperfect systems of the Latin and Greek grammars, in stead of being amended, are modelled to the grossest faults of what is worthless in our own? Lily did not divide his, as others have divided the subject since; but first stated briefly his three concords , and then proceeded to what he called the construction of the several parts of speech, taking them in their order.

The three concords of Lily are the following: Of the Nominative and Verb ; to which the accusative before an infinitive, and the collective noun with a plural verb, are reckoned exceptions; while the agreement of a verb or pronoun with two or more nouns, is referred to the figure syllepsis. Of the Substantive and Adjective ; under which the agreement of participles, and of some pronouns, is placed in the form of a note.

Of the Relative and Antecedent ; after which the two special rules for the cases of relatives are given as underparts. Adam divided his syntax into two parts; of Simple Sentences, and of Compound Sentences. His three concords are the following: Of one Substantive with an Other ; which construction is placed by Lily and many others among the figures of syntax, and is called apposition.

Of an Adjective with a Substantive ; under which principle, we are told to take adjective pronouns and participles. Of a Verb with a Nominative ; under which, the collective noun with a verb of either number, is noticed in an observation. The construction of relatives, of conjunctions, of comparatives, and of words put absolute, this author reserves for the second part of his syntax; and the agreement of plural verbs or pronouns with joint nominatives or antecedents, which Ruddiman places in an observation on his four concords , is here absurdly reckoned a part of the construction of conjunctions.

Various divisions and subdivisions of the Latin syntax, with special dispositions of some particular principles of it, may be seen in the elaborate grammars of Despauter, Prat, Ruddiman, Grant, and other writers. And here it may be proper to observe, that, the mixing of syntax with etymology, after the manner of Ingersoll, Kirkham, R. Smith, Sanborn, Felton, Hazen, Parkhurst, Parker and Fox, Weld, and others, is a modern innovation, pernicious to both; either topic being sufficiently comprehensive, and sufficiently difficult, when they are treated separately; and each having, in some instances, employed the pens of able writers almost to the exclusion of the other.

The English language, having few inflections, has also few concords or agreements, and still fewer governments. Articles, adjectives, and participles, which in many other languages agree with their nouns in gender, number, and case, have usually, in English, no modifications in which they can agree with their nouns. Yet Lowth says, "The adjective in English, having no variation of gender and number, cannot but agree with the substantive in these respects.

What then is the agreement of words?

Can it be anything else than their similarity in some common property or modification? And is it not obvious, that no two things in nature can at all agree , or be alike , except in some quality or accident which belongs to each of them?

Yet how often have Murray and others, as well as Lowth , forgotten this! To give one instance out of many: Yet, according to these same gentlemen, "Gender is the distinction of nouns , with regard to sex;" and, "Pronouns must always agree with their antecedents, and the nouns for which they stand, in gender. The governing words may be either nouns, or verbs, or participles, or prepositions; the words governed are either nouns, or pronouns, or verbs, or participles. In parsing, the learner must remember that the rules of government are not to be applied to the governing words, but to those which are governed ; and which, for the sake of brevity, are often technically named after the particular form or modification assumed; as, possessives, objectives, infinitives, gerundives.

These are the only things in English, that can properly be said to be subject to government; and these are always so, in their own names; unless we except such infinitives as stand in the place of nominatives. Gerundives are participles governed by prepositions; but, there being little or no occasion to distinguish these from other participles, we seldom use this name. The Latin Gerund differs from a participle, and the English Gerundive differs from a participial noun.

The participial noun may be the subject or the object of a verb, or may govern the possessive case before it, like any other noun; but the true English gerundive, being essentially a participle, and governing an object after it, like any other participle, is itself governed only by a preposition. At least, this is its usual and allowed construction, and no other is acknowledged to be indisputably right. Of Articles to nouns, by Rule 1st; 2. Of Nominatives to verbs, by Rule 2d; 3. Of Nominatives absolute or independent, by Rule 8th; 4. Of Adjectives to nouns or pronouns, by Rule 9th; 5.

Of Participles to nouns or pronouns, by Rule 20th; 6. Of Conjunctions as connecting words, phrases, or sentences, by Rule 22nd; 8. Of Prepositions as showing the relations of things, by Rule 23d; 9. Of Interjections as being used independently, by Rule 24th. The twenty-four rules above, embrace the following ten heads, which may not improperly be taken for so many distinct concords: Of a Noun or Pronoun in direct apposition with another, by Rule 3d; 2.

Of a Noun or Pronoun after a verb or participle not transitive, by Rule 6th; 3. Of a Pronoun with its antecedent, by Rule 10th; 4. Of a Pronoun with a collective noun, by Rule 11th; 5. Of a Pronoun with joint antecedents, by Rule 12th; 6. Of a Pronoun with disjunct antecedents, by Rule 13th; 7. Of a Verb with its nominative, by Rule 14th; 8. Of a Verb with a collective noun, by Rule 15th; 9. Of a Verb with joint nominatives, by Rule 16th; Of a Verb with disjunct nominatives, by Rule 17th. To these may be added two other special concords, less common and less important, which will be explained in notes under the rules: Of one Verb with an other, in mood, tense, and form, when two are connected so as to agree with the same nominative; Of Adjectives that imply unity or plurality, with their nouns, in number.

Words in apposition agree in case , according to Rule 3d; of which principle, Rule 6th may be considered a modification. Pronouns agree, with their nouns, in person, number, and gender , according to Rule 10th; of which principle, Rules 11th, 12th, and 13th, may be reckoned modifications. Verbs agree with their nominatives, in person and number , according to Rule 14th; of which principle Rules 15th, 16th, and 17th, and the occasional agreement of one verb with an other, may be esteemed mere modifications.

Some adjectives agree with their nouns in number. These make up the twelve concords above enumerated. This division of the subject brings all the titles of the rules wrong. For example, if the rule be, "Active verbs govern the accusative case," this is not properly "the government of verbs " but rather the government of the accusative by verbs. At least, such titles are equivocal , and likely to mislead the learner. The governments in English are only seven, and these are expressed, perhaps with sufficient distinctness, in six of the foregoing rules: Of Possessives by nouns, in Rule 4th; 2.

Of Objectives by verbs, in Rule 5th; 3. Of Objectives by participles, in Rule 5th; 4. Of Objectives by prepositions, in Rule 7th; 5. Of Infinitives by the preposition to , in Rule 18th; 6. Of Participles by prepositions, in Rule 20th. But it is to be remembered, that the mere collocation of words in a sentence never affects the method of parsing them: In order to show that we have parsed any part of an inverted or difficult sentence rightly, we are at liberty to declare the meaning by any arrangement which will make the construction more obvious, provided we retain both the sense and all the words unaltered; but to drop or alter any word, is to pervert the text under pretence of resolving it, and to make a mockery of parsing.

Grammar rightly learned, enables one to understand both the sense and the construction of whatsoever is rightly written; and he who reads what he does not understand, reads to little purpose. With great indignity to the muses, several pretenders to grammar have foolishly taught, that, "In parsing poetry, in order to come at the meaning of the author, the learner will find it necessary to transpose his language. See also the books of Merchant, Wilcox, O. Peirce, Hull, Smith, Felton , and others, to the same effect. To what purpose can he transpose the words of a sentence, who does not first see what they mean, and how to explain or parse them as they stand?

In accordance with this assertion, some assume, that, "Every nominative has its own verb expressed or understood;" and that, "Every verb except in the infinitive mood and participle has its own nominative expressed or understood. The adopters of these dogmas, of course think it right to supply a nominative whenever they do not find a separate one expressed for every finite verb, and a verb whenever they do not find a separate one expressed for every nominative. This mode of interpretation not only precludes the agreement of a verb with two or more nominatives, so as to render nugatory two of the most important rules of these very gentlemen's syntax; but, what is worse, it perverts many a plain, simple, and perfect sentence, to a form which its author did not choose, and a meaning which he never intended.

Suppose, for example, the text to be, "A good constitution and good laws make good subjects. Does not the verb make agree with constitution and laws , taken conjointly? Away then with all this needless subaudition! But while we thus deny that there can be a true ellipsis of what is not necessary to the construction, it is not to be denied that there are true ellipses, and in some men's style very many. The assumption of O. Peirce, that no correct sentence is elliptical, and his impracticable project of a grammar founded on this principle, are among the grossest of possible absurdities.

Wilson says, "There may be several subjects to the same verb, several verbs to the same subject, or several objects to the same verb, and the sentence be simple. But when the sentence remains simple, the same verb must be differently affected by its several adjuncts, or the sense liable to be altered by a separation. If the verb or the subject be affected in the same manner, or the sentence is resolvable into more, it is compounded. Thus, 'Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, mixed in due proportion, produce white,' is a simple sentence, for the subject is indivisible.

But, 'Violet, indigo, blue, green, yellow, orange, and red, are refrangible rays of light,' is a compound sentence, and may be separated into seven. The propriety of the distinction here made, is at least questionable; and I incline to consider the second example a simple sentence, as well as the first; because what the writer calls a separation into seven, involves a change of are to is , and of rays to ray , as well as a sevenfold repetition of this altered predicate, " is a refrangible ray of light.

Nor do I admit that he has a right to insert or repeat anything needlessly ; for the nature of a sentence, or the syntax of some of its words, may often be altered without change of the sense, or of any word for an other: Smith's , ; Weld's , ; and others. By this notion of ellipsis, the connexion or joint relation of words is destroyed. Adam, who thought the division of sentences into simple and compound, of sufficient importance to be made the basis of a general division of syntax into two parts, has defined a simple sentence to be, "that which has but one nominative, and one finite verb;" and a compound sentence, "that which has more than one nominative, or one finite verb.

The parts of which a compound sentence consists, are called Members or Clauses. In every compound sentence there are either several subjects and one attribute, or several attributes and one subject, or both several subjects and several attributes; that is, there are either several nominatives applied to the same verb, or several verbs applied to the same nominative, or both.

Every verb marks a judgment or attribute, and every attribute must have a subject. There must, therefore, be in every sentence or period, as many propositions as there are verbs of a finite mode. Sentences are compounded by means of relatives and conjunctions; as, Happy is the man who loveth religion, and practiseth virtue. And if "a simple sentence is that which has but one nominative and one finite verb," and "a compound sentence is made up of two or more simple sentences," it follows, since "all sentences are either simple or compound," that, in no sentence, can there be "either several nominatives applied to the same verb, or several verbs applied to the same nominative.

Nor is it less repugnant to his subsequent doctrine, that, "Sentences are compounded by means of relatives and conjunctions ;" for, according to his notion, "A conjunction is an indeclinable word, which serves to join sentences together. It is assumed, that, "In every sentence there must be a verb and a nominative expressed or understood. Now if there happen to be two nominatives to one verb, as when it was said, "Even the winds and the sea obey him;" this cannot be anything more than a simple sentence; because one single verb is a thing indivisible, and how can we suppose it to form the most essential part of two different sentences at once?

Some will say, that the words in brackets are here understood. I may deny it, because they are needless; and nothing needless can form a true ellipsis. To the supplying of useless words, if we admit the principle, there may be no end; and the notion that conjunctions join sentences only, opens a wide door for it. No additional words will make this clause any plainer, and none are really necessary to the construction; yet some grammarians will parse it with the following impletions, or more: Adam and others would recognize a sentence as being compound.

Yes, truly; but these authors are wrong in their notions and definitions of both. Joint nominatives or joint verbs may occur in either; but they belong primarily to some simple sentences, and only for that reason are found in any that are compound. A sentence, too, may possibly be made compound, when a simple one would express the whole meaning as well or better; as, "And [David] smote the Philistines from Geba until thou come to Gazer. Here, if we omit the words in Italics, the sentence will become simple, not elliptical. To analyze a sentence, is, to resolve it into some species of constituent parts, but most properly into words, its first significant elements, and to point out their several relations and powers in the given connexion.

The component parts of a sentence are members, clauses, phrases , or words. Some sentences, which are short and simple, can only be divided into their words; others, which are long and complex, may be resolved into parts again and again divisible. Of analysis applicable to sentences, there are several different methods; and, so far as their difference may compatibly aid the application of different principles of the science of grammar, there may be an advantage in the occasional use of each. Sentences not simple may be reduced to their constituent members, clauses, or simple sentences; and the means by which these are united, may be shown.

The three members are united in one sentence, by a suspension of the sense at each dash, and by two virtual repetitions of the subject, " Atheist " through the pronoun " he ," put in the same case, and representing this noun. The sense mainly intended is not brought out till the period ends.

The first of these relative clauses involves also a subordinate, supplementary clause,--" the universe is self-existent and indestructible "--introduced after the verb " tells " by the conjunction " that.

Rasselas could not catch the fugitive, with his utmost efforts; but, resolving to weary, by perseverance, him whom he could not surpass in speed, he pressed on till the foot of the mountain stopped his course. Its principal parts are-- Fear, quickens, flight ; Fear being the subject, quickens the verb, and flight the object.

Fear has no adjunct; naturally is an adjunct of quickens ; the and of guilt are adjuncts of flight. The second period is composed of several clauses, or simple members, united. The first of these is also a simple sentence, having, three principal parts-- Rasselas, could catch , and fugitive ; the subject, the verb, and its object, in their order.

The Grammar of English Grammars/Part III

Not is added to could catch , reversing the meaning; the is an adjunct to fugitive ; with joins its phrase to could not catch ; but his and utmost are adjuncts of efforts. The word but connects the two chief members as parts of one sentence. Him is governed by weary , and is the antecedent to whom.

Not and in speed are adjuncts to the verb could surpass. Its principal parts are two, he and pressed ; the latter taking the particle on as an adjunct, and being intransitive. Till is a conjunctive adverb of time, connecting the concluding clause to pressed on. The adjuncts of foot are the and of the mountain ; the verb in this sentence has no adjunct but course , which is better reckoned a principal word; lastly, his is an adjunct to course , and governed by it. Attainment is followed by neglect, and possession, by disgust. Few moments are more pleasing than those in which the mind is concerting measures for a new undertaking.

From the first hint that wakens the fancy, to the hour of actual execution, all is improvement and progress, triumph and felicity. In the first clause, emptiness is the grammatical subject, and " the emptiness of human enjoyment " is the logical. Is some would call the grammatical predicate, and "Such is," or is such , the logical; but the latter consists, as the majority teach, of "the copula" is , and "the attribute," or "predicate," such. In the second clause, which explains the import of " Such ," the subject is we ; which is unmodified, and in which therefore the logical form and the grammatical coincide and are the same.

Are may here be called the grammatical predicate; and " are always impatient of the present ," the logical. The second period, too, is a compound sentence, having two clauses, which are connected by and. Attainment is the subject of the former; and, " is followed by neglect " is the predicate. In the latter, possession alone is the subject; and, "[ is followed ] by disgust ," is the predicate; the verb is followed being understood at the comma. The third period, likewise, is a compound, having three parts, with the two connectives than and which.

Here we have moments for the first grammatical subject, and Few moments for the logical; then, are for the grammatical predicate, and are more pleasing for the logical: In which is an adjunct of is concerting , and serves well to connect the members, because which represents those , i. Mind , or the mind , is the next subject of affirmation; and is concerting , or, " is concerting measures for a new undertaking ," is the predicate or matter affirmed.

Lastly, the fourth period, like the rest, is compound. The phrases commencing with From and to , describe a period of time, and are adjuncts of the verb is. The former contains a subordinate relative clause, of which that representing hint is the subject, and wakens , or wakens the fancy , the predicate. Of the principal clause, the word all , taken as a noun, is the subject, whether grammatical or logical; and "the copula," or "grammatical predicate," is , becomes, with its adjuncts and the nominatives following, the logical predicate.

Hence sentences may be, in some sort, analyzed, and perhaps profitably, by the tracing of such relation or connexion, from link to link, through a series of words, beginning and ending with such as are somewhat remote from each other, yet within the period. The period is designed to show, that Swift preferred words of Saxon origin; and Johnson, of Latin. Swift is the subject of would say ; and would say introduces the clause after it, as what would be said. The relates to thing ; thing is the subject of has ; has , which is qualified by not , governs life ; life is qualified by the adjective enough , and by the phrase, in it ; enough is the prior term of to ; to governs keep ; keep governs it , which stands for the thing ; and it , in lieu of the thing , is qualified by sweet.

The chief members are connected either by standing in contrast as members, or by but , understood before Johnson. Johnson is the subject of would say , understood: The relates to creature ; creature is the subject of possesses ; possesses , which is qualified by not , governs vitality ; vitality is qualified by sufficient ; sufficient is the prior term of to ; to governs preserve ; preserve governs it , and is the prior term of from ; and from governs putrefaction.

As to "the chain of connexion," Away relates to can take ; can take agrees with its nominative nothing , and governs which ; which represents security ; security is governed by finding ; finding is governed by of ; of refers back to conviction ; conviction is governed by with ; with refers back to can look ; can look agrees with we , and is, in sense, the antecedent of to ; to governs whom ; whom represents Being ; and Being is the subject of is.

This method is fully illustrated in the Twelfth Praxis below. The last four or five observations of the preceding series have shown, that the distinction of sentences as simple or compound , which constitutes the chief point of the First Method of Analysis above, is not always plain, even to the learned. The definitions and examples which I have given, will make it generally so; and, where it is otherwise, the question or puzzle, it is presumed, cannot often be of much practical importance.

If the difference be not obvious, it can hardly be a momentous error, to mistake a phrase for an elliptical clause, or to call such a clause a phrase.

There is, in many of our popular grammars, some recognition of the principles of this analysis--some mention of "the principal parts of a sentence," in accordance with what are so called above,--and also, in a few, some succinct account of the parts called " adjuncts ;" but there seems to have been no prevalent practice of applying these principles, in any stated or well-digested manner.

Lowth, Murray, Alger, W. In Allen's English Grammar, which is one of the best, and likewise in Wells's, which is equally prized, this reduction of all connected words, or parts of speech, into "the principal parts" and "the adjuncts," is fully recognized; the adjuncts, too, are discriminated by Allen, as "either primary or secondary," nor are their more particular species or relations overlooked; but I find no method prescribed for the analysis intended, except what Wells adopted in his early editions but has since changed to an other or abandoned, and no other allusion to it by, Allen, than this Note, which, with some appearance of intrusion, is appended to his "Method of Parsing the Infinitive Mood: Lowth says, "In English the nominative case, denoting the agent, usually goes before the verb, or attribution; and the objective case, denoting the object, follows the verb active.

Murray copies, but not literally, thus: Of course, they have not failed to set forth the comparative merits of this scheme in a sufficiently favourable light. The two ingenious gentlemen who seem to have been chiefly instrumental in making it popular, say in their preface, "The rules of syntax contained in this work result directly from the analysis of propositions, and of compound sentences; and for this reason the student should make himself perfectly familiar with the sections relating to subject and predicate , and should be able readily to analyze sentences, whether simple or compound, and to explain their structure and connection.

If the latter be conducted, as it often is, independently of previous analysis, the principal advantage to be derived from the study of language, as an intellectual exercise, will inevitably be lost. Butler, who bestows upon this subject about a dozen duodecimo pages, says in his preface, "The rules for the analysis of sentences, which is a very useful and interesting exercise, have been taken from Andrews' and Stoddard's Latin Grammar, some changes and additions being made. Subsequently, he changed his scheme , from that of Parts Principal and Adjuncts , to one of Subjects and Predicates , "either grammatical or logical," also "either simple or compound;"--to one resembling Andrews and Stoddard's, yet differing from it, often, as to what constitutes a "grammatical predicate;"--to one resenbling [sic--KTH] the Third Method above, yet differing from it, as does Andrews and Stoddard's, in taking the logical subject and predicate before the grammatical.

It is gratifying to observe that the attention of teachers is now so generally directed to this important mode of investigating the structure of our language, in connection with the ordinary exercises of etymological and syntactical parsing. If it has been found practicable, to slide "the attention of teachers," and their approbation too, adroitly over from one "important mode of investigating the structure of our language," to an other;--if "it is gratifying to observe," that the direction thus given to public opinion sustains itself so well, and "is so generally" acquiesced in;--if it is proved, that the stereotyped praise of one system of analysis may, without alteration, be so transferred to an other, as to answer the double purpose of commending and superseding;--it is not improbable that the author's next new plates will bear the stamp of yet other "most important principles" of analysis.

This process is here recommended to be used " in connection with the ordinary exercises of etymological and syntactical parsing,"--exercises, which, in Wells's Grammar, are generally, and very improperly, commingled; and if, to these, may be profitably conjoined either his present or his former scheme of analysis, it were well, had he somewhere put them together and shown how. This implies, what is probably true of the etymological exercise, that parsing is more rudimental than the other forms of analysis.

It also intimates, what is not so clear, that pupils rightly instructed must advance from the former to the latter, as to something more worthy of their intellectual powers. The passage is used with reference to either form of analysis adopted by the author. So the following comparison, in which Parsing is plainly disparaged, stands permanently at the head of "the chapter on Analysis," to commend first one mode, and then an other: The mechanical routine of technical parsing is peculiarly liable to become monotonous and dull, while the practice of explaining the various relations and offices of words in a sentence , is adapted to call the mind of the learner into constant and vigorous action, and can hardly fail of exciting the deepest interest,"-- Wells's Gram.

From the strong contrast cited above, one might suspect that, in selecting, devising, or using, a technical process for the exercising of learners in the principles of etymology and syntax, this author had been less fortunate than the generality of his fellows. Not only is it implied, that parsing is no critical analysis, but even what is set in opposition to the "mechanical routine," may very well serve for a definition of Syntactical Parsing--" the practice of explaining the various relations and offices of words in a sentence!

Nor, after all, is even this author's mode of parsing, defective though it is in several respects, less "important" to the users of his book, or less valued by teachers, than the analysis which he sets above it. Greene, a public teacher in Boston, who, in answer to a supposed "demand for a more philosophical plan of teaching the English language," has entered in earnest upon the "Analysis of Sentences," having devoted to one method of it more than the space of two hundred duodecimo pages, speaks of analysis and of parsing, thus: Analysis consists in pointing out the words or groups of words which constitute the elements of a sentence.

Analysis should precede parsing. These groups perform the office of the substantive , the adjective , or the adverb , and, in some one of these relations, enter in as the component parts of a sentence. The pupil who learns to determine the elements of a sentence, must, therefore, learn the force of these combinations before he separates them into the single words which compose them. This advantage is wholly lost in the ordinary methods of parsing. Nor indeed could it be; because parsing is a species of analysis.

The first assertion would be just as true as it is now, were the former word substituted for the latter: Again, the suggestion, that, " Analysis consists in pointing out the words or groups of words which constitute the elements of a sentence," has nothing distinctive in it; and, without some idea of the author's peculiar system of "elements," previously impressed upon the mind, is scarcely, if at all, intelligible.

Lastly, that a pupil must understand a sentence,--or, what is the same thing, " learn the force of the words combined ,"--before he can be sure of parsing each word rightly, is a very plain and certain truth; but what "advantage" over parsing this truth gives to the lesser analysis, which deals with "groups," it is not easy to discover. If the author had any clear idea of " this advantage ," he has conveyed no such conception to his readers. Its chief principles may be briefly stated thus: Sentences, which are simple, or complex, or compound, are made up of words, phrases , and clauses --three grand classes of elements, called the first , the second , and the third class.

From these, each sentence must have two elements; the Subject , or Substantive element, and the Predicate , or Predicative element, which are principal; and a sentence may have five, the subordinates being the Adjective element, the Objective element, and the Adverbial element. The five elements have sundry modifications and subdivisions. Each of the five may, like a sentence, be simple, or complex, or compound; and each may be of any of the three grand classes.

The development of this scheme forms a volume, not small. The system is plausible, ingenious, methodical, mostly true, and somewhat elaborate; but it is neither very useful nor very accurate. It seems too much like a great tree, beautiful, symmetrical, and full of leaves, but raised or desired only for fruit, yet bearing little, and some of that little not of good quality, but knurly or bitter.

The chief end of a grammar, designed for our tongue, is, to show what is, and what is not, good English. To this end, the system in question does not appear to be well adapted. Bullions, the projector of the "Series of Grammars, English, Latin, and Greek, all on the same plan ," inserted in his Latin Grammar, of , a short sketch of the new analysis by "subjects and predicates," "grammatical and logical," the scheme used by Andrews and Stoddard; but his English Grammar, which appeared in , was too early for this "new and improved method of investigating" language.

In his later English Grammar, of , however, paying little regard to sameness of "plan " or conformity of definitions, he carefully devoted to this matter the space of fifteen pages, placing the topic, not injudiciously, in the first part of his syntax, and referring to it thus in his Preface: The selections prepared for the stated praxes of this work, will be found as suitable as any. Analysis of sentences is a central and essential matter in the teaching or the study of grammar; but the truest and the most important of the sentential analyses is parsing ; which, because it is a method distinguished by a technical name of its own, is not commonly denominated analysis.

The relation which other methods should bear to parsing , is, as we have seen, variously stated by different authors.

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Etymological parsing and Syntactical are, or ought to be, distinct exercises. The former, being the most simple, the most elementary, and also requisite to be used before the pupil is prepared for the latter, should, without doubt, take precedence of all the rest, and be made familiar in the first place. Those who say, " Analysis should precede parsing ," will scarcely find the application of other analysis practicable, till this is somewhat known.

But Syntactical Parsing being, when complete in form, the most thorough process of grammatical resolution, it seems proper to have introduced the other methods before it, as above. It can hardly be said that any of these are necessary to this exercise, or to one an other; yet in a full course of grammatical instruction, each may at times be usefully employed.

Bullions suggests, that, " Analysis should precede Syntactical parsing , because, till we know the parts and elements of a sentence, we can not understand their relations, nor intelligently combine them into one consistent whole. This reason is entirely fictitious and truthless; for the words of a sentence are intuitively known to be its "parts and elements;" and, to " understand their relations," is as necessary to one form of analysis as to another; but, "intelligently to combine them," is no part of the parser's duty: Allen's Grammar, as in Wells's, Syntactical parsing and Etymological are not divided.

Wells intersperses his "Exercises in Parsing," at seven points of his Syntax, and places "the chapter on Analysis," at the end of it. Allen treats first of the several parts of grammar, didactically; then presents a series of exercises adapted to the various heads of the whole. At the beginning of these, are fourteen "Methods of Parsing," which show, successively, the properties and construction of his nine parts of speech; and, at the ninth method , which resolves infinitives , it is proposed that the pupil begin to apply a method of analysis similar to the Second one above.

The grand clew to all syntactical parsing is THE SENSE; and as any composition is faulty which does not rightly deliver the authors meaning, so every solution of a word or sentence is necessarily erroneous, in which that meaning is not carefully noticed and literally preserved. In all complete syntactical parsing, it is required of the pupil--to distinguish the different parts of speech and their classes; to mention their modifications in order; to point out their relation, agreement, or government; and to apply the Rules of Syntax.

A is the indefinite article: Young is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared regularly, young, younger, youngest: Man is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: Studious is a common adjective, compared by means of the adverbs; studious, more studious, most studious ; or, studious, less studious, least studious: To is a preposition: Know is an irregular active-transitive verb, from know, knew, knowing, known ; found in the infinitive mood, present tense--no person, or number: His is a personal pronoun, representing man , in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender: Duty is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: And is a copulative conjunction: Honestly is an adverb of manner: Bent is a perfect participle, from the redundant active-transitive verb, bend, bent or bended, bending, bent or bended: On is a preposition: Doing is an imperfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, do, did, doing, done: It is a personal pronoun, representing duty , in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender: Will find is an irregular active-transitive verb, from find, found, finding, found ; found in the indicative mood, first-future tense, third person, and singular number: Himself is a compound personal pronoun, representing man, in the third person, singular number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender;" and is in the objective case, being governed by will find ; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case.

Led is a perfect participle, from the irregular active-transitive verb, lead, led, leading, led: Away is an adverb of place: From is a preposition: The is the definite article: Sin is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: Or is a disjunctive conjunction: Folly is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is connected by or to sin , and governed by the same preposition from ; according to Rule 7th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of a preposition, is governed by it in the objective case.

In is a preposition: Which is a relative pronoun, representing sin or folly , in the third person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 13th, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by or or nor , it must agree with them singly, and not as if taken together: Multitude is a common noun, collective, of the third person, conveying the idea of plurality, masculine gender, and nominative case: Thoughtlessly is an adverb of manner: Indulge is a regular active-transitive verb, from indulge, indulged, indulging, indulged ; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: Themselves is a compound personal pronoun, representing multitude , in the third person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 11th, which says, "When the antecedent is a collective noun conveying the idea of plurality, the pronoun must agree with it in the plural number: But is a disjunctive conjunction: Ah is an interjection, indicating sorrow: Poor is a common adjective, of the positive degree, compared regularly, poor, poorer, poorest: Fallen is a participial adjective, compared perhaps by adverbs: Human is a common adjective, not compared: Nature is a common noun, of the second person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: What is a pronominal adjective, not compared: Conflicts is a common noun, of the third person, plural number, neuter gender, and nominative case: Are is an irregular neuter verb, from be, was, being, been ; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: Thy is a personal pronoun, representing nature , in the second person, singular number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender: Portion is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: When is a conjunctive adverb of time: Inclination is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: Habit is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and nominative case: Rebel is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: Traitor is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, masculine gender, and nominative case: Exert is a regular active-transitive verb, from exert, exerted, exerting, exerted ; found in the indicative mood, present tense, third person, and plural number: Their is a personal pronoun, representing inclination and habit , in the third person, plural number, and neuter gender; according to Rule 12th, which says, "When a pronoun has two or more antecedents connected by and , it must agree with them jointly in the plural, because they are taken together: Sway is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case; and is governed by exert ; according to Rule 5th, which says, "A noun or a pronoun made the object of an active-transitive verb or participle, is governed by it in the objective case.

Against is a preposition: Our is a personal pronoun, representing the speakers , in the first person, plural number, and masculine gender; according to Rule 10th, which says, "A pronoun must agree with its antecedent, or the noun or pronoun which it represents, in person, number, and gender: Only is a pronominal adjective, not compared: Saving is a participial adjective, compared by adverbs when it means frugal , but not compared in the sense here intended: Principle is a common noun, of the third person, singular number, neuter gender, and objective case: The first is the art of speaking eloquently; the second, that of thinking well; and the third, that of speaking with propriety.

And let the sentence come, if God so will. The other side of the sea is my Father's ground, as well as this side. The lightning has its power, and the whirlwind has its power, and the earthquake has its power. But there is something among men more capable of shaking despotic power than lightning, whirlwind, or earthquake; that is--the threatened indignation of the whole civilized world. The rapid style, the vehement reasoning, the disdain, anger, boldness, freedom, which perpetually animate them, would render their success infallible over any modern assembly.

I question whether the same can be said of Cicero's orations; whose eloquence, however beautiful, and however well suited to the Roman taste, yet borders oftener on declamation, and is more remote from the manner in which we now expect to hear real business and causes of importance treated. The descriptions of the Deity, in them, are wonderfully noble; both from the grandeur of the object, and the manner of representing it.

Nothing but the general practice of good writers and good speakers can do it. If a man be just and beneficent, if he be temperate, modest, and prudent, he will infallibly gain the esteem and love of all who know him. Human happiness has no perfect security but freedom;--freedom, none but virtue;--virtue, none but knowledge: At Walter Raleigh's trial, Coke, when argument and evidence failed him, insulted the defendant by applying to him the term thou.

Nature teaches every man to be eloquent, when he is much in earnest. Place him in some critical situation, let him have some great interest at stake, and you will see him lay hold of the most effectual means of persuasion. Fame, like fire, is with difficulty kindled, is easily increased, but dies away if not continually fed. To preserve fame alive, every enterprise ought to be a pledge of others, so as to keep mankind in constant expectation. Laws and courts are necessary, to settle controverted points between man and man; but a man should pay an acknowledged debt, not because there is a law to oblige him, but because it is just and honest, and because he has promised to pay it.

It is therefore natural to expect, that a crime thus generally detested, should be generally avoided. A swearer will lie, and a liar is not to be believed even upon his oath; nor is he believed, when he happens to speak the truth. You know I have been constant and uniform in opposition to her measures. The die is now cast. I have passed the Rubicon. Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish with my country, is my unalterable determination.

Better--"on which truths grow. The genius of the trade of literature is necessarily unfriendly to such productions. He shall be buried with the burial of an ass, drawn and cast forth beyond the gates of Jerusalem. In this chapter, and those which follow it, the Rules of Syntax are again exhibited, in the order of the parts of speech, with Examples, Exceptions, Observations, Notes, and False Syntax. The Notes are all of them, in form and character, subordinate rules of syntax, designed for the detection of errors.

The correction of the False Syntax placed under the rules and notes, will form an oral exercise , similar to that of parsing, and perhaps more useful. Articles relate to the nouns which they limit: The definite article used intensively , may relate to an adjective or adverb of the comparative or the superlative degree; as, "A land which was the mightiest. The indefinite article is sometimes used to give a collective meaning to what seems a plural adjective of number ; as, "Thou hast a few names even in Sardis. See Etymology, Articles, Obs.

Hence, two or more articles in a sentence are signs of two or more nouns; and hence too, by a very convenient ellipsis, an article before an adjective is often made to relate to a noun understood; as, " The grave [ people ] rebuke the gay [ people ], and the gay [ people ] mock the grave" [ people ]. Hence the following sentence is bad English: The sense of the former noun only was meant to be limited. The expression therefore should have been, " Language and the understanding have a strict connexion," or, "The understanding has a strict connexion with language.

That is--"to the aim of the speaker or the writer. Yet the omission of articles, when it occurs, is not properly by ellipsis , as some grammarians declare it to be; for there never can be a proper ellipsis of an article, when there is not also an ellipsis of its noun. Ellipsis supposes the omitted words to be necessary to the construction, when they are not so to the sense; and this, it would seem, cannot be the case with a mere article.

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