Afterwinds: World of the White Light, Book One

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Please contact Customer Services and request "Return Authorisation" before you send your item back to us. Unauthorised returns will not be accepted. Returns must be postmarked within 4 business days of authorisation and must be in resellable condition. Returns are shipped at the customer's risk. We cannot take responsibility for items which are lost or damaged in transit. Larger particles get molten radioactive materials deposited on their surface. Particles aspired into the cloud later, when its temperature is low enough, do not become significantly contaminated.

Particles formed only from the weapon itself are fine enough to stay airborne for a long time and become widely dispersed and diluted to non-hazardous levels. Higher-altitude blasts which do not aspire ground debris, or which aspire dust only after cooling enough and where the radioactive fraction of the particles is therefore small, cause much smaller degree of localized fallout than lower-altitude blasts with larger radioactive particles formed.

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The concentration of condensation products is the same for the small particles and for the deposited surface layers of larger particles. The volume, and therefore activity, of the small particles is almost three orders of magnitude lower than the volume of the deposited surface layers on larger particles. For higher-altitude blasts, the primary particle forming processes are condensation and subsequent coagulation.

For lower-altitude and ground blasts, with involvement of soil particles, the primary process is deposition on the foreign particles. A low-altitude detonation produces a cloud with a dust loading of tons per megaton of yield. A ground detonation produces clouds with about three times as much dust.

For a ground detonation, approximately tons of soil per kiloton of yield is melted and comes in contact with radiation. The fireball volume is the same for a surface or an atmospheric detonation. In the first case, the fireball is a hemisphere instead of a sphere, with a correspondingly larger radius. The particle sizes range from submicrometer- and micrometer-sized created by condensation of plasma in the fireball , through 10— micrometers surface material agitated by the blast wave and raised by the afterwinds , to millimeter and above crater ejecta.

The size of particles together with the altitude they are carried to, determines the length of their stay in the atmosphere, as larger particles are subject to dry precipitation. Smaller particles can be also scavenged by precipitation , either from the moisture condensing in the cloud itself or from the cloud intersecting with a rain cloud.

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The fallout carried down by rain is known as rain-out if scavenged during raincloud formation, washout if absorbed into already formed falling raindrops. Particles from air bursts are smaller than 10—25 micrometers, usually in the submicrometer range. They are composed mostly of iron oxides , with smaller proportion of aluminium oxide , and uranium and plutonium oxides.

Particles larger than 1—2 micrometers are very spherical, corresponding to vaporized material condensing into droplets and then solidifying. The radioactivity is evenly distributed throughout the particle volume, making total activity of the particles linearly dependent on particle volume. For example, strontium will have less time to condense and coalesce into larger particles, resulting in greater degree of mixing in the volume of air and smaller particles.

These coagulate with stratospheric aerosols.

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The coagulation offsets the fractionation processes at particle formation, evening out isotopic distribution. For ground and low-altitude bursts, the cloud contains also vaporized, melted and fused soil particles. The distribution of activity through the particles depends on their formation. Particles formed by vaporization-condensation have activity evenly distributed through volume as the air-burst particles. Larger molten particles have the fission products diffused through the outer layers, and fused and non-melted particles that were not heated sufficiently but came in contact with the vaporized material or scavenged droplets before their solidification have a relatively thin layer of high activity material deposited on their surface.

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The composition of such particles depends on the character of the soil, usually a glass -like material formed from silicate minerals. The particle sizes do not depend on the yield but instead on the soil character, as they are based on individual grains of the soil or their clusters.

The amount of large irregular particles is insignificant. Molten silica is a very good solvent for metal oxides and scavenges small particles easily; explosions above silica-containing soils will produce particles with isotopes mixed through their volume. In contrast, coral debris, based on calcium carbonate , tends to adsorb radioactive particles on its surface.

The elements undergo fractionation during particle formation, due to their different volatility. Volatile elements Kr, Xe, I, Br are not condensed at that temperature.

Mushroom cloud

Intermediate elements have their or their oxides boiling points close to the solidification temperature of the particles Rb, Cs, Mo, Ru, Rh, Tc, Sb, Te. The elements in the fireball are present as oxides, unless the temperature is above the decomposition temperature of a given oxide. Less refractory products condense on surfaces of solidified particles. Isotopes with gaseous precursors solidify on the surface of the particles as they are produced by decay.

The largest, and therefore the most radioactive particles, are deposited by fallout in the first few hours after the blast. Smaller particles are carried to higher altitudes and descend slower, reaching ground in less radioactive state as the isotopes with the shortest half-lives decay the fastest.

The smallest particles can reach stratosphere and stay there for weeks, months, even years and reach an entire hemisphere via atmospheric currents. The high-danger, short-term, localized fallout is deposited primarily downwind from the blast site, in a cigar-shaped area, assuming a constant-strength, constant-direction wind.

Crosswinds, wind direction changes, and precipitation greatly alter the fallout pattern. The condensation of water droplets in the mushroom cloud depends on the amount of condensation nuclei. Too many condensation nuclei actually inhibit condensation, as the particles compete for a relatively insufficient amount of water vapor. Chemical reactivity of the elements and their oxides, ion adsorption properties, and compound solubility influence particle distribution in the environment after deposition from the atmosphere.

Bioaccumulation influences the propagation of fallout radioisotopes in the biosphere. The primary fallout hazard is gamma radiation from short-lived radioisotopes, which represent the bulk of activity. Within 24 hours after the burst, the fallout gamma radiation level drops 60 times.

Longer-life radioisotopes, typically caesium and strontium , present a long-term hazard. Intense beta radiation from the fallout particles can cause beta burns to people and animals coming in contact with the fallout shortly after the blast.

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Ingested or inhaled particles cause an internal dose of alpha and beta radiation, which may lead to long-term effects, including cancer. The neutron irradiation of the atmosphere itself produces a small amount of activation, mainly as long-lived carbon and short-lived argon The elements most important for induced radioactivity for sea water are sodium , chlorine , magnesium , and bromine.

For ground bursts, the elements of concern are aluminium , silicon , sodium, manganese , iron , and cobalt The bomb casing can be a significant sources of neutron-activated radioisotopes. The neutron flux in the bombs, especially thermonuclear devices, is sufficient for high-threshold nuclear reactions.

The induced isotopes include cobalt, 57 and 58, iron and 55, manganese, zinc, yttrium, and possibly nickel and 62, niobium, holmium, iridium, and short-lived manganese, sodium, silicon, and aluminium Europium and can be present, as well as two nuclear isomers of rhodium During the Operation Hardtack , tungsten , and and rhenium were produced from elements added as tracers to the bomb casings, to allow identification of fallout produced by specific explosions.

Antimony , cadmium , and cadmiumm are also mentioned as tracers. The most significant radiation sources are the fission products from the primary fission stage, and in the case of fission-fusion-fission weapons, from the fission of the fusion stage uranium tamper. Many more neutrons per unit of energy are released in a thermonuclear explosion in comparison with a purely fission yield influencing the fission products composition.

For example, the uranium isotope is a unique thermonuclear explosion marker, as it is produced by a n,2n reaction from uranium , with the minimal neutron energy needed being about 5.

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Considerable amounts of neptunium and uranium are indicators of a fission-fusion-fission explosion. Minor amounts of uranium are also formed, and capture of large numbers of neutrons by individual nuclei leads to formation of small but detectable amounts of higher transuranium elements , e.

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