Landscapes: Painting Processes (Painting With Ev Hales Book 2)

“Painting with Ev Hales” Instructional Ebooks

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Samenvatting

Alle prijzen zijn inclusief BTW en andere heffingen en exclusief eventuele verzendkosten en servicekosten. Elektronica topcadeaus Korting op parfum Cadeauwinkel Cadeaukaarten Kerst voordeel. Ebooks kunnen worden gelezen op uw computer en op daarvoor geschikte e-readers. Ebooks lezen is heel makkelijk: Samenvatting An inspiring, practical book that encourages you to "Have A Go" and capture, in paint, any scene you see outdoors.

Practical painting strategies and tactics simplify a range of subjects - from simple to complex. Watercolour is used because it is the most easily transportable, outdoor painting medium.

Landscapes

From a watercolour pencil and water filled brush to a full painting kit discover ways to capture the essence of the day. How to maximise the use of different kinds of paper for certain subjects. Watercolour can be carried anywhere at home or overseas without fuss and wet paintings are not a problem. Ev Hales, a talented artist and skilled tutor, takes you on a journey through a variety of subjects and painting challenges as she demonstrates ways of thinking to approach your subject.

Her work covers a myriad of themes- portraiture, florals, landscapes, seascapes and still life. Each is imbued with her fascination for the interplay of light with her subject. Her recognition of tonal values, colour and edges combine with her drawing skill to create works that demand - and repay in full - attention. Malcolm Beattie conducted a watercolour class for intermediate to advanced students and will demonstrate his unique process. Malcolm has released a book and holds regular workshops around the country including from his studio in Melbourne.

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Ev Hales watercolour has over 30 years experience as a teacher and artist, with an excellent of a range of media, but her love is watercolour. Ev is very popular with the students and part of her course will involve at least one outdoor session and focus on landscapes, buildings, painted in traditional watercolour. Peter Griffen is well known for his abstract expressionism and has a large following in the southern states. His works are vibrant and full of movement. Peter unlocked the creative side and stimulated the imagination.

Participants experienced the freedom of making a mark and using colour. Gary Duncan Creating order from chaos, using symmetry of shapes in nature, and mastering the application of colour expanded the student's range of techniques and skills in this contemporary landscape workshop. Strong colours, textures and designs, rich in detail, make powerful statements.

With a love of drawing from an early age, by he had made wildlife art his specialty. Over time, the autopsy began to be utilized to determine the cause of death and by the 's it had a role in forensics. The renaissance preoccupation with the body presented a stark contrast to medieval tradition. Valuing spirit over flesh , medieval artists had worked in an abstract , two-dimensional linear style that deemphasized corporeality. Unsatisfied by this approach, fifteenth-century artists emulated the body-conscious quality of ancient Greek and Roman sculpture, drawing inspiration from the prevalent depiction of nudity and the use of drapery as a means of articulating the body, simultaneously revealing and concealing the torso and limbs.

According to classical authors such as Pliny AD 23—79 and Vitruvius born c. Known as the classical canon of proportion, this system became a subject of tremendous fascination to Renaissance artists who endeavored to unlock its secrets through analysis of ancient texts and surviving works of art. With the revival of the humanistic values of classical antiquity in the Renaissance, artists desired to portray man as in a positive light and in doing so needed to understand the human form completely—it was also held that if the artist could draw the human figure correctly, he could draw anything.

As European artists turned towards more lifelike portrayals of the human body, they sought an understanding not only of the surface of the body but how the muscles and bones worked together. Artists and anatomists worked together to investigate the body through dissection and produced images of the body that combined medical knowledge and an artistic vision of humanity's place in the world.

The relationship between artists and anatomists was reciprocally advantageous. Artists like Michelangelo — and Leonardo Da Vinci — observed physicians at work to learn the layers of muscle and bone structures that formed certain parts of the body. In turn, physicians contracted artists to draw illustrations for the high volume of texts coming out in the field of anatomy. Some artists even forged partnerships with specific physicians.

Nonetheless, opportunities for direct anatomical dissection were very restricted during the Renaissance. Giorgio Vasari' s — Lives of the Artists states that the great Florentine sculptor, painter and printmaker Antonio Pollaiuolo c. Academies of art established across Europe from the s had anatomy on the curriculum well into the s. Specialist professors of anatomy were normally appointed from the medical world to demonstrate to students.

If no bodies were available for dissection, pictures and three-dimensional wax models were used by medical and art students alike. These models were prized as much for their artistic value as for their anatomical value. After the law prohibiting the dissection of dead bodies in the Netherlands was rescinded, among those most interested were painters. At first difficulties were placed in their way, and even at Leiden, where there was a "dissecting-place" as early as , the painters complained in that they had no means of pursuing this study.

But, not long after, anatomical schools were established at Leiden, Amsterdam and Delft, on the plan of the famous Theatrum Anatomicum at Leiden, where artists might occasionally look on at a dissection and draw from the human skeleton. Anatomy books were widely available. In Vermeer's earliest work, the Diana and her Companion s, which was presumably executed soon after he terminated his apprenticeship, the drawing of anatomy and drapery is noticeably unsophisticated. Furthermore, there is no evidence of foreshortening to speak of, another fact which would be in conflict with the assumption that he had trained with a history painter..

On the other hand, in the following work, Christ in the House of Mary and Martha , the young artist produced one of the most eloquent examples of foreshortening of his career, the head of the seated Mary who lifts her head upwards to hear Christ's words. With respect to the Diana , the drawing in this work has improved considerably, perhaps too much if we remember that some art historians hold that the two works were painted within the span of only a year or two.

In later years of his career, Vermeer more than occasionally disregarded anatomical correctness altogether, or, as Philip Hale, an accomplished painter and author of the first American monograph on Vermeer, seems to think, was unable to achieve it. The bulbous hand of the seated artist in The Art of Painting is one of the most noted anatomical distortions in the artist's oeuvre.

Lawrence Gowing , like Hale himself a painter, whose highly regarded assessment of Vermeer's drawing is quoted below, excused the artist for this and claimed that it was obtained deliberately, in obedience to "optical authenticity. For example, the fingers and wrists of the figure of Allegory of Faith are so poorly defined that they look more like rubber gloves filled with water than real hands. The extended arm and claw-like hand of the seated figure in the Lady Writing a Letter with her Maid can be pardoned only because it was painted by Vermeer, and the arms and fingers of A Lady Seated at a Virginal are so crudely rendered that one prominent Dutch art historian appointed them "pig trotters," despite Gowing's interpretation quoted at length below.

Perhaps the plainest sign of peculiarity is the frequently almost complete absence in the darker passages of [Vermeer's late] pictures of that linear realization which we call drawing. Many who have glanced at the hands which rest on the keyboards of the virginal in the pictures in the National Gallery may have passed on thinking that they have caught the master in a weaker moment.

But these details are quite characteristic; Vermeer's shadow does not only obscure line, it interrupts and denies it. Where fingers turn away from the light or an eye casts its hemispherical shadow Vermeer refuses, as it were, to admit to us that he knows what the darkened forms are, how they are divided, where lie their bounding lines.

In the servant in the Dublin picture it is the mouth which is submerged, in her mistress the eye as well, in the lady seated at the virginal the whole form of finger and hand, a disappearance which becomes very clear when we turn even to a picture as close to Vermeer's influence as Gabriel Metsu's The Music Lesson which often hangs beside it. If we compare the arm of the letter writer resting on the table, with a similar detail Gabriel Metsu 's — in the conventional vocabulary in such a picture as Gerrit ter Borch 's — Woman Reading a Letter at Buckingham Palace, the gulf is plain. In Vermeer we have to deal with something quite outside the painterly fullness of tone which was so often the burden of pictorial evolution between Masaccio — and Rembrandt — His is an almost solitary indifference to the whole linear convention and its historic function of describing, enclosing, embracing the form it limits, a seemingly involuntary rejection of the way in which the intelligence of painters has operated from the earliest times to our own day.

Even now, when the photographer has taught us to recognize visual as against imagined continuity, and in doing so no doubt blunted our appreciation of Vermeer's strangeness, the feat remains as exceptional as it is apparently perverse, and to a degree which may not be easy for those unconcerned with the technical side of a painter's business to measure.

However firm the contour in these pictures, line as a vessel of understanding has been abandoned and with it the traditional apparatus of draftsmanship. In its place, apparently effortlessly, automatically, tone bears the whole weight of formal explanation. It is instructive to quote Hale on the subject of the greater or lesser degree of anatomical understanding in the paintings of Vermeer Philip L.

Small, Maynard, , 73— Evaluation of Vermeer's drawing is difficult because while, in one sense of the word, he was an excellent draughtsman, there is another viewpoint from which his drawing was not remarkable. He did not draw structurally at all. While many of the Netherlands painters knew their anatomy and constructed their figures understandingly, it is questionable if Vermeer really understood the construction of the arm, the wrist, the hand, the knee, the foot.

By sheer keenness of perception he sometimes rendered wonderfully well the general shape and size of a hand; this by indication of the way the light slid over it. He often drew heads well, as if they were still life. His accessories were delineated about as adequately as by anyone. There is occasionally a little faltering in getting one side of a jug even with the other side, but, practically speaking, Vermeer, working always from the appearance of things, delineated still life—chairs, crumpled rugs and his famous lion's heads—quite adequately.

In respect both of the excellences and the limitations of his draughtsmanship Vermeer was decidedly a painter of old Holland. It is fashionable to speak of Rembrandt — and his contemporaries as impeccable draughtsmen; Fromentin and Kenyon Cox, the latter an accomplished draughtsman himself, have written to that effect.

Yet, as must appear to anyone looking sympathetically through portfolios of old drawings, a wild scribble by Cellini, or by almost any one of the baroque imitators of Michelangelo, contains more adequate suggestion of construction than can be noted in any Netherlands work. This is not to say that the baroque scribbles are altogether good; one indicates merely that their makers knew something of anatomical structure, of attachments and flexions of muscles. They got at the drawing of an arm or of a torso from intimate perception of its construction, whereas the men of Holland sought to render it as it looked by studying its proportions and the effect of light and shade upon it.

The latter got what they were after, generally, but their drawing was not necessarily constructive. An Italian term meaning "in the manner of the ancients'" used for works of art, architecture and literature that sought to revive the style and principles of the classical past, especially those of Ancient Rome. The origins of this style can be seen as early as in the fourteenth century, but it became especially widespread in the fifteenth century. In architecture the style is distinguished by its use of antique ornament, particular the classical orders, and symmetry.

It was based upon the study of antique buildings and upon the only surviving Ancient Roman architectural manual, 'On Architecture' by Vitruvius. Prominent early examples include the buildings of Filippo Brunelleschi — , including the Pazzi Chapel and the Loggia degli Innocenti. Pictures should represent appropriate dress and settings and not modern scenes such as those of Vermeer.

De Lairesse believed that viewers would become eventually estranged by contemporary dress owing to continual change in fashion. In the edition of de Lairesse's treatise, Vermeer was cited among other "modern" Dutch masters whose art was destined to perish along with "the old Mieris" Frans van Mieris and "Metzu" Gabriel Metsu — Antiquity is a broadly applied term which refers to the history and culture of a period of Western civilization.

It is primarily used in an art-historical context to describe Greco-Roman life and art in Europe prior to the decline of the Roman empire. The literary, cultural and architectural remains surviving from Antiquity were particularly valued during the Renaissance. Artists might depict Roman ruins in the background or use classical inscriptions and Roman lettering within a picture.

They also sought archaeological exactness in dress. It is generally believed that from the onset of his career, unlike many Dutch contemporary painters who considered themselves little more as artisans , Vermeer seemed to have conceived the role of the artist in its most lofty sense. His first pictures were large-scale history paintings of religious or mythological subjects.

These subjects were considered the most adapted for expressing the most noble goal of art: For an unknown reason, soon after the first large scale history paintings, Vermeer abruptly began to depict contemporary interiors which, according to art theorists of the time, belonged to the "modern" mode considered inferior because only transitory values were expressed. However, for modern art historians , only Vermeer among Dutch "modern" genre interior painters was able to imbue paintings of daily life with a sense of timelessness and express the moral seriousness associated with history painting.

The most explicit testimony of Vermeer's elevated concept of art is announced in his ambitious The Art of Painting. Whether the allegorical message of the painting refers to the nobility of art or its capacity to bestow fame upon its creator is uncertain, it is clear that the work displays a knowledge of classical ideals which dominated European art theory, but which in the Netherlands had lost their hold on the great part of painters.

As John Walsh pointed out Jan Steen: The Drawing Lesson , most twentieth-century ideas of art education are based on the modern assumptions that the painter's job is to communicate his subjective states of mind rather than to transmit traditional values, or that the artist ought to be independent, choosing a financially risky life on the fringe of society if necessary. These ideas would have seemed strange ideas to Vermeer and his contemporaries because "in our time painting has become primarily an intellectual or spiritual activity that is no longer constrained by the labor and discipline of imitating nature or expected to embody learning.

Painting in the seventeenth century, in contrast, was practiced entirely within the social and economic boundaries of the system that supported it. There seems to have been no rigid limitation on the time apprentices spent in the shop. Cennino Cennini recommended at least six years. The relationship between master and apprentices was very flexible, geared to the economics of the art market. Once the apprentice had become a master he could set up a shop for himself and take on his own apprentice or apprentices.

The number of apprentices in a master's studio appears to have been directly related to his popularity, although guilds sometimes limited the number of apprentices he might hold. The system of apprenticeship first developed in the later Middle Ages and came to be supervised by craft guilds and town governments. A master craftsman was entitled to employ young people as an inexpensive form of labor in exchange for providing food, lodging and formal training in the craft. Most apprentices were males, but female apprentices were found in crafts such as seamstress, tailor, cordwainer, baker and stationer.

Apprentices usually began at ten to fifteen years of age, and would live in the master craftsman's household. Most apprentices aspired to becoming master craftsmen themselves on completion of their contract, but some would spend time as a journeyman and a significant proportion would never acquire their own workshop. In the Netherlands, boys customarily began their apprenticeship at the age of ten or twelve through the signing of a detailed contract by the father of the apprentice, who paid specified fees to the master to whose studio the boy was to be attached.

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Although some female Dutch painters are known, they received training from their fathers or husbands. Training was sometimes harsh: He swept floors, ran errands and cleaned brushes each evening. He was obliged to keep regular hours, which made for a long day, dawn to dusk at a minimum. This made painting more time consuming and physically taxing than it is today.

Paint, for example, was not sold in convenient off-the-shelf, ready-to-use tubes. Each morning, the artist had to hand grind paints necessary for the day's work and no more. This practice, however, allowed him to create the optimum texture and viscosity for each paint and avoid wasting precious raw materials. Today, instead, artists use paints manufactured by specialized firms who strive for a uniform behavior across all paints. Among the other chores, during the Renaissance apprentices posed for both male and female figures; the use of women models was extremely rare and probably limited to the master's own wife or daughters.

The apprentice sat for long hours drawing , and only once he had proved his mettle was he allowed to take a brush in hand other than to clean it. And even then, it was probably to fill in anonymous background foliage, secondary draperies of his master's current labor or to make a copy of another master's work. On the other hand, the master was obligated by contract to "provide instruction, to the best of his ability and as he himself practices it, in the art of painting and all that goes with it," or words to that effect, "without concealing anything" is sometimes added.

It was a recognized custom for the pupil's work to be sold as the master's. Sometimes the master signed his pupil's work with his own name. Even though the initial years of training taxed the apprentice's physical and creative energies, he acquired an intimate, hands-on knowledge of his craft with added advantage of being exposed to a solid business model. Training with a recognized master was expensive. On the average, the family of a young apprentice who continued to live with his parents paid between twenty and fifty guilders per year.

Without board or lodging, the apprentice could disburse fifty to one hundred guilders in order to study with a famous artist such as Rembrandt or Gerrit Dou — , although highly productive pupils might be exempted from paying fees. Some even received wages. If we consider that school education in the Netherlands generally cost two to six guilders a year and that apprenticeship generally lasted between four and six years, the financial burden of educating a young artist was considerable.

The parents had to do without their son's potential earnings because everything he made was property of his master. Evidently, the allure of social advancement and future earnings must have been significant for many families. Architectural painting is a form of genre painting where the predominant focus lies on architecture, both outdoors views and interiors.

While architecture was present in many of the earliest paintings and illuminations, it was mainly used as background or to provide rhythm to a painting. In the Renaissance , architecture was used to emphasize the perspective and create a sense of depth, like in Masaccio 's — Holy Trinity from the s. In Western art, architectural painting as an independent genre developed in the sixteenth century in Flanders and the Netherlands, and reached its peak in sixteenth- and seventeenth-century Dutch painting. Later, it developed in a tool for Romantic paintings, with, a for example, views of ruins becoming very popular.

In the seventeenth century, architectural painting became one of the leading genres in the Dutch Golden Age, together with portrait painting, Pieter Jansz. During the first years of the s, a small group of Delft church painters began to emphasize visual experience over fantasy. In a few years, they brought the art of church painting to its apogee. Although Saenredam had no pupils or close followers, some art historians believe his works may have been a common source of inspiration for Houckgeest and De Witte, Delft's most accomplished practitioners of the specialization. Their close-up portrayals of Delft's two venerable churches, the Nieuwe and Oude Kerk , are flooded with a cool, crystal clear daylight suggested by delicately modeled patches of diaphanous grays.

Huge columns are placed off-center in the very forefront of the painting, partially obscuring the viewer's access to the rest of the church. The spectator is no longer overwhelmed by the vacuous space of the earlier church scenes, but feels as if he were able to move comfortably in and around these monumental, man-made constructions, the vaunt of Delft's citizenry.

For the first time, figures, which had been previously employed as decorative filler staffage , become an integral part of the composition. The Dutch men, women and children who inhabit the churches appear dignified and self-possessed, not stylized dolls. The reduced dimensions of the Delft church views—the architectural paintings of the nearby Hague were generally much larger to suit the exigencies of the princely patronage—may have been determined by the desire to create more intimate scenery, by specific demands of the art-buying public in Delft or by both.

De Witte and Houckgeest revolutionized the spatial construction of their church interiors by employing two-vanishing points which form a corner at the nearest foreground column, from which the perspectival orthogonals recede to both sides of the composition. Both lateral vanishing points are located outside the composition. This innovation creates a natural, and intriguing spatial recession which appears to expand "behind" the picture frame creating the sense of spatial breadth as well as spatial depth.

By lowering the height of the vanishing point, which had been placed higher in earlier church paintings in order to create a wide panoramic view of the scene, the viewer of De Witte's and Houckgeest's works feel as if he is located "in" the picture, with his feet firmly on the church's pavement rather than suspended at an undetermined height somewhere above the ground. In various Delft church interiors, De Witte, Houckgeest and Van Vliet, the latter a Delft painter of minor talent, placed hanging curtains, sometime brilliantly colored, to the side of the composition in order to increase the sense of spatial illusion.

Sometimes the curtain's hanging rod is also represented see image left creating the illusion that the curtain does not belong to the space of the church itself, but is located in front of the painting, imitating curtains which were hung over precious paintings in order to prevent them from collecting dust. The art historian Sergiusz Michalski traced this motif to Rembrandt — , who had used it occasionally in representations of mythological or biblical scenes. Due to the unquestionable naturalness of their works, most critics agree that De Witte and Houckgeest worked from life, although most likely in the form of drawing.

Painters of the time rarely set up their easels to paint in oils outdoors while records of painters drawing outdoors are relatively abundant. The exact sequence of church paintings created by Houckgeest and De Witte in the crucial first years of — is still open to argument. The so-called "Delft-type" of church interior painting had a significant impact on the development of the artistic types in the Gouden Eeuw , the Golden Age of Dutch painting. Vermeer painted two architectural landscapes which have survived, or more precisely, one cityscape , the The View of Delft and one cityscape, The Little Street.

A surviving document informs us another cityscape existed. The View of Delft is Vermeer's largest and most time consuming work of his oeuvre, except perhaps, the elaborate Art of Painting. Since nothing has come down to us concerning the artist's intentions in regards this or for that matter, any other work art historians have felt obliged to somehow fill the gap. Walter Liedtke believes that the view could have been commissioned by Vermeer's patron, Pieter van Ruijven who had collected more than half of the artist's artistic production including The View of Delft.

Furthermore, the art historian points out that Van Ruijven's collection the two small-scale cityscapes already mentioned as well as three architectural paintings by Emanuel de Witte, including a patriotic view of William the Silent's tomb in the Nieuwe Kerk which Vermeer spectacularly highlighted in his View of Delft. Van Ruijven would have also been aware of the historically proclaimed relation between an artist's reputation and the fame bestowed on his city. Dutch citizens strongly identified not only with their republic, but with their city of birth as well.

Their civic pride is testified by innumerable Dutch cityscapes many of which are so similar to one another that they are virtually indistinguishable expect a few characteristic church towers or large civic buildings. Curiously, even the earliest reference to The Little Street describes it as a "house" rather than a "street.

In those times, Vermeer's house was not the kind of luxurious townhouse that was going up on the fashionable Oude Delft but a modest house from a distant past which had somehow resisted the misfortunes of the city, old but not dilapidated. To anyone who gazed upon the Little Street in seventeenth-century Netherlands the now unfamiliar Dutch term, schilderachtig , would have come to mind.

Schilderachtig , which means "picture worthy" or "worthy of painting" corresponds fairly well to today's "picturesque. Accordingly, an old woman, a dilapidated farmhouse, a village peasant scene or Vermeer's humble house would have drawn sneers since only grand Biblical or historical narratives were truly worthy of great art. According to the Online Etymology Dictionary , the word "art" came into use as an English word in the thirteenth century, having been borrowed from the Old French in the tenth century which meant "skill as a result of learning or practice.

Moreover, whereas modern aesthetics stresses the fact that art cannot be learned, and thus often becomes involved in the curious endeavor to teach the unteachable, the ancients always understood by art something that can be taught and learned. Any simple definition of art would be profoundly pretentious, but perhaps all the definitions offered over the centuries include some notion of human agency, whether through manual skills as in the art of sailing or painting or photography , intellectual manipulation as in the art of politics , or public or personal expression as in the art of conversation.

In any case, many modern art philosophers hold that the definition of art has become so expansive as to be vacuous. Art criticism is the discussion or evaluation of visual art. Art critics usually criticize art in the context of aesthetics or the theory of beauty. A goal of art criticism is the pursuit of a rational basis for art appreciation but it is questionable whether such criticism can transcend prevailing socio-political circumstances. The variety of artistic movements has resulted in a division of art criticism into different disciplines which may each use different criteria for their judgments.

The most common division in the field of criticism is between historical criticism and evaluation, a form of art history , and contemporary criticism of work by living artists. Despite perceptions that art criticism is a much lower risk activity than making art, opinions of current art are always liable to drastic corrections with the passage of time.

Critics of the past are often ridiculed for either favoring artists now derided like the academic painters of the late nineteenth century or dismissing artists now venerated like the early work of the Impressionists. Some art movements themselves were named disparagingly by critics, with the name later adopted as a sort of badge of honor by the artists of the style e. Art has been traded ever since art was made. The Phoenicians were already active traders, and ancient Rome imported large amounts of Greek art. Auctions were held in imperial Rome and art dealers carried on their trade in well-know quarters.

The structure of the demand and the social position of the artist in the Middle Ages was such that there was no space for an art trade outside relics and luxury items such as ivory combs and chessboards. New forms of art trade arose only at the end of the Middle Ages owing to social changes and an increased demand for art.

The growing bourgeoisie class began to buy and collect art by the end of the sixteenth century joining the church and the aristocracy, although they were unable to finance major works of art as the patrons had done before. In addition to religious painting, portraiture and profane art, often more marketable than religious art, created new market, easier to appreciate. The creative status of the visual artist began to supplant the role of the painter as a mere workman although it did not disappear entirely. These accumulated factors facilitated the position of an intermediary between artist and buyer and spawned new forms of art trade in the works of living artists.

The birthplace of art trade as we know it today was in the seventeenth-century Netherlands. While commissions by nobility and the church stagnated, members of the increasingly wealthy bourgeoisie were able to afford oil paintings for the first time. Following the demands of the new market, the motifs as well as the techniques changed, lowering costs and producing new motifs.

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Lofty history paintings and mythological scenes were replaced by more down- to- earth still lifes , landscapes and genre images. Prices ranged from a few guilders to vast sums. The explosive rise of art production in the Netherlands made it the leader of European art trade in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The first art dealers often were the painters themselves—almost every one of them in fact—supplementing the income of their own works with the sales of artworks of their colleagues.

Even Rembrandt — and Vermeer acted as dealers. Apart from artists, book traders, printers and general merchants traded with art. Despite the fact that guild tried to protect local production by prohibiting the sale of artworks from non-member paintings, there were many ways to get around this limitation, such as public raffles. Interested clients visited the dealer's studio. Some paintings were commissioned but the overwhelming of paintings were produced in response to market demand and sold on spec.

Professional art dealers, including Vermeer's father, Reynier Vermeer , and Abraham de Cooge, another dealer located in Delft, dealt not only in their hometown, but the latter, presumably as far away as Antwerp and Amsterdam. The could also sell the work of artists who were non members of the Guild of Saint Luke. A successful art dealer had to know which paintings were the most desired during a certain period. If he were also an artist he could either paint such works himself or arranged for them to be copied in his studio.

As there existed no copyright protection for creative artworks, particularly salable paintings and subjects were copied time and time again by an army of young painters, who worked from dawn to dusk. In Antwerp, one of the most important art markets in Europe, paintings were made to order in great quantities, and sometimes pictures were sold by weight.

Today, many art dealers own their own art galleries in order to exhibit and sell art in a setting that encourages comparison and open discussion, but the reputation of the category has been and remains equivocal. The role of an art dealer has been said to be a mix of nursemaid, fixer, connoisseur and capitalist. It is known that just like many other Dutch painters Vermeer dealt in the works of his colleagues. In an inventory of his living quarters various paintings by his colleagues are listed, including those of Carel Fabritius — In his time Hendrick Gerritsz van Uylenburgh c.

In , Van Uylenburgh organized an auction of Gerrit Reynst's art collection and offered thirteen paintings and some sculptures from among those which had not sold at the auction to Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. However, Frederick accused them of being counterfeits and sent them back. Van Uylenburg then organized a counter-assessment, asking a total of 35 painters to pronounce on their authenticity, including Jan Lievens — , Melchior d'Hondecoeter c.

In , Van Uylenburgh had financial problems, as a result of the war with France, falling art prices, and possibly due to the damage to his reputation from the Brandenburg affair. His business went bankrupt and he moved to London, where Peter Lely — exerted his influence at court and secured him the post of Surveyor of the King's Pictures. In general, art dealers had to become guild members in order to work legally.

The term is usually used by artists and art writers of the second half of the nineteenth century: In the twentieth century, the notion has been sharply critiqued by Walter Benjamin, among others. As the nineteenth century progressed, the exercise of artistic freedom became fundamental to progressive modernism.

Artists began to seek freedom not just from the rules of academic art, but from the demands of the public. Soon it was claimed that art should be produced not for the public's sake, but for art's sake. Art for art's sake is basically a call for release from was perceived as the tyranny of meaning and purpose. It was also a ploy, another deliberate affront to bourgeois sensibility which demanded art with meaning or that had some purpose such as to instruct, or delight, or to moralize, and generally to reflect in some way their own purposeful and purpose-filled world.

A work of art is the unique result of a unique temperament. Its beauty comes from the fact that the author is what he is. It has nothing to do with the fact that other people want what they want. Indeed, the moment that an artist takes notice of what other people want, and tries to supply the demand, he ceases to be an artist, and becomes a dull or an amusing craftsman, an honest or dishonest tradesman. He has no further claim to be considered as an artist.

In the late-nineteenth century, we find art beginning to be discussed by critics and art historians largely in formal terms which effectively removed the question of meaning and purpose from consideration. From then on, art was to be discussed in terms of style—color, line, shape , space, composition —ignoring or playing down whatever social, political, or progressive statements the artist had hoped to make in his or her work. However, with the rise of the modernist school of painting in the early s Vermeer's art began to be appreciated for its formal qualities which seemed to reflect the revolutionary concerns of avante guard contemporary painting.

Wilhelm Valentiner, expert of Dutch painting, maintained that Vermeer focused primarily on the "purely aesthetic. Philip Hale, Boston painter and art teacher, was the first American to write a monograph on Vermeer in Hale was deeply struck by what he perceived as "Vermeer's modernity. He anticipated the modern idea of impersonality in art One does not see by his composition what he thought of it all. Some years later, P.

Swillens a Dutch art historian whose monograph on Vermeer was published in , was to have an important impact on the study of Vermeer. He shared Hales' opinions and wrote that the artist had no interest in the "inner life" of his sitters and that he "reveals only what is of value to him as a painter. However, Swillen's overriding emphasis on the aesthetic content of a picture, which typifies the concept of art for art's sake, may miss one of the most compelling aspects of Vermeer's work: Lawrence Gowing only two years after the publication of Swillens' monograph, exposed a new point of view.

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