Additional amounts are taken in through food, water, and air. Soil and rocks contain potassium 40 and uranium, thorium, and radium. Tiny amounts of these materials are taken into the body with food and water.
Small amounts of radiation can be received for medical purposes without significant harm. The average tuberculosis chest X-ray exposes the chest to an amount of between one-tenth to one-half roentgen. Even large amounts of radiation can be applied to limited areas of the body without being fatal.
Cancer specialists often bombard cancerous area with massive doses of radiation, destroying more cancer cells than normal cells. During the average lifetime, every human being receives about 10 roentgens of radiation from natural sources. When large amounts of radiation are absorbed by the body in short periods of time, sickness and death may result.
In general, the effects of radiation exposure stay with people and accumulate over a period of time. Few people get sick who have been exposed to roentgens or less. Exposure to more than roentgens over a period of a few days will cause sickness and may cause death. And death is expected to ensue for almost everyone who receives an exposure of roentgens over a period of a few days. The effects of similar exposures over a period of months or years are still under study, though in general, even a fairly large dose of radiation absorbed over months or years is not as dangerous as when absorbed over a few days.
In the former case, the body is able to repair much of the cell damage as it occurs. Persons and animals exposed to large amounts of radiation will develop radiation sickness. Radiation sickness is neither contagious nor infectious; a person cannot "catch it" from others.
People or animals suffering from radiation sickness can be helped without fear of "catching" radiation injury from them. However, a person or animal with "radiation sickness" could be suffering from a massive infection, and should be treated accordingly. Again, fallout radiation cannot make anything radioactive. Food and water that have been exposed to fallout radiation are contaminated only to the extent that they contain fallout particles or dissolved radioactive material. Fallout particles can be removed from water supplies by sedimentation or filtering.
People who have fallout particles on their bodies or clothing probably would not carry enough to endanger other people, but they should clean themselves for their own protection. People may show symptoms of radiation sickness if they have received a dose of from to or more roentgens. Such symptoms as nausea, vomiting, or diarrhea, may appear in the first day or so, then about a week may pass before other symptoms appear. These later symptoms may include loss of weight, loss of appetite, bleeding, discolored spots on the skin, paleness, redness, swollen mouth and throat, and general discomfort.
Symptoms of three degrees of radiation sickness are: Mild-the especially sensitive person will show some nausea, lack of appetite, and fatigue within a few hours after exposure. He should rest but can continue normal activities. Recovery will be rapid. Moderate-the same symptoms appear, but well within two hours of exposure, and more markedly. Vomiting and even prostration may occur. By the third day, recovery may seem complete, but symptoms may recur in the next few days or weeks. Severe-again, all the early symptoms show up and may vanish after a few days.
But after a week or more, fever, mouth soreness and diarrhea may appear; gums and mouth ulcerate and bleed; and, in about the third week, the patient's hair may start to fall out. Recovery may take 7 to 8 weeks. When exposure has been overwhelming, death comes in hours. Symptoms should be treated in this way: Motion sickness tablets for nausea. Liquids for diarrhea and vomiting, but not until vomiting has stopped ideally, 1 tablespoon of table sale to 1 quart of cool water, to be sipped slowly.
This solution can be used as a mouthwash for sore mouth. It is important to remember that many of the symptoms may also appear in people who do not have radiation sickness at all. Symptoms such as nausea, lack of appetite, and fatigue may be seen in persons subject to extreme anxiety and emotional stress. Exposure to radiation of individuals should be kept as low as possible. This would be done in the immediate postattack period by using the best available shelter for the period of time necessary to ensure survival.
If it becomes necessary to leave shelter for essential items, the dose rate and the time of exposure will determine the amount of radiation that an individual receives. A simplified method of calculating dose would be to multiply the dose rate by the time of exposure e. Generally, individuals should obtain guidance on permissible dose from their local Civil Defense officials.
A measuring point for the effects of extreme whole-body exposure that is often used is called the median lethal dose. About roentgens acute dose is the estimated median lethal dose for man, as compared to about roentgens for dogs or to for rats. Radiation rate or intensity from fallout decreases with time-that is the radiation level, as measured in roentgens per hour, drops lower and lower.
This falling off is known as radioactive decay. The "half-life" of a radioactive element is the time that it takes for a given amount of the isotope to decrease in radioactivity to half its original value. For instance, a form of cobalt cobalt 60 has a half-life of about 5 years. Each radioactive isotope has a different half-life, and this ranges from a small fraction of a second to billions of years. The passage of seven half-lives of a radioactive isotope decreases its radiation level to about 1 percent of its initial radiation level.
The passage of 10 half-lives decreases the radiation to about one-tenth of 1 percent of the initial radiation. The mixture of isotopes formed after a nuclear burst-the mixture that makes up fallout-is so complex that it is not possible to calculate the exact decay rate. However, from experimental measurements, a rough approximation indicates that for each sevenfold increase in time, the radioactivity of the mixture found in fallout drops to about one-tenth of its former value.
In general, the radioactivity at 4: Within about 2 weeks, the radioactivity can be expected to decay by another factor of But even this level of radiation can be dangerous if there is a heavy concentration of fallout, and the decay rate may differ in some cases. It must be emphasized that the nuclear radiation in fallout cannot be destroyed. Neither boiling nor burning, treatment with chemicals, nor any other action will destroy or neutralize radioactivity. Because of radioactive decay, fallout will become less harmful with the passage of time, but there is no known way to speed up the decay process.
Fallout cannot be made harmless quickly. However, fallout can be removed from many contaminated surfaces. Protection from external radiation exposure is a combination of three things: Time, distance, and shielding. That is, a person may protect himself by:. In a fallout area, shielding is the only dependable means of protection. Methods of providing shielding are discussed in Chapters IV and VI, in which shelters are considered in detail. People within a well-stocked shelter have placed mass between themselves and the source of radiation, and they should remain behind this mass until the radiation has decayed to levels permitting activity outside of the shelter.
Persons seeking shelter after a nuclear attack should remember that the introduction of radioactive material into shelter areas can be minimized by such ordinary precautions as closing doors and windows. Unnecessary movement in and out of shelters should be avoided whenever there is a possibility that fallout is near.
Prolonged contact with fallout material is hazardous. Following a nuclear attack the air would be contaminated by radioactive fallout to the extent that it Contained Fallout Particles. The most hazardous fallout particles-early fallout-would reach the earth in the first day after the detonation, but their mere passage through the air would not contaminate the air. Some radiation will probably penetrate all shelters, but fallout particles in harmful amounts should be and can be kept out of shelters.
People in underground shelters could keep fallout particles out of their shelters by having a simple hood over the air-intake pipe. Special filters are not needed for small basement family shelters. However, group shelters that have high velocity air-intake fans might need filters on the air-intake system to keep fallout particles out. Fallout gamma radiation would pass through any type of protective clothing that would be practical to wear.
Heavy and dense materials such as earth and concrete are needed to stop the highly penetrating gamma rays. Tightly woven outer clothing could be useful-particularly for emergency workers-in keeping fallout Particles off the body, but the wearer would not be protected from the Gamma radiation given off by the particles.
The worker would wear the outer clothing when in a fallout contaminated area and then leave it outside or brush or wash it thoroughly before entering a noncontaminated area. Many experiments have been conducted to develop a special medicine to protect against the effects of radiation.
Thus far, there seems little likelihood that a pill, or any other type of medicine, will soon be developed that can protect people from the effects of fallout radiation. Contamination is the deposit of radioactive material on the surfaces of structures, area, objects, or people following a nuclear explosion. Decontamination is the reduction or removal of contaminating radioactive fallout from a structure, area, object, or person. Contamination could be caused by fallout material settling on persons outdoors while fallout was descending or by entering a very dusty area after fallout had ceased.
Self-decontamination should be accomplished only after a person has assured himself that he is protected from the far greater hazard of the fallout field of radiation in his area. Therefore, if one is caught in the open when fallout begins he should immediately seek shelter and then remove a. Some community shelters may contain a decontamination area in which showers would be available and a change of clothing might be appropriate. In most cases simple wiping or washing of hands, face, and clothing, would reduce the contamination to insignificant levels.
It is unlikely that food and water inside a building would be sufficiently contaminated to be dangerous to eat or drink. If food supplies do become contaminated many types of food can be treated to remove the radioactive material. Fresh fruits and vegetables can be washed or peeled to remove the outer skin or leaves. Food in cans, covered jars or closed containers such as plastic bags can be decontaminated by washing or wiping the material off the container. The contents would not be contaminated.
Similar cleaning methods appropriate to the type of food involved would in most cases be sufficient. Water supplies in the home water heater or toilet tank or shelters would not require decontamination. However, there is a possibility of contamination of public water supplies. Serious contamination of public water supplies is unlikely. Should this occur, however, a water softener in the home is an effective method of decontamination, as is distillation, when practical. It should be noted that mere boiling of water contaminated with fallout is of absolutely no value in removal of the radioactivity.
It is of interest also, that the regular water treatment coagulation, sedimentation, filtration by public authorities will remove most of the contaminated material. The decontamination of buildings, streets, and equipment, might be necessary before an area could be used for its intended purpose. Civil Defense authorities would undertake this type of decontamination operation. Since radioactive contamination is similar to dirt, its removal by water or sweeping could be done by fire department or public works personnel using their day-to-day operation equipment.
Many communities have organized decontamination teams for this purpose. For the individual who might have occasion to decontaminate in his home, common methods of cleaning could be used. Thus, brooms, or vacuum cleaners might be useful. But this should be undertaken only on instructions from local authorities. As mentioned previously, the unit of measurement for gamma radiation doses is roentgens or milliroentgens. In evaluating the effect of nuclear radiation on living things, we are concerned not. We want to know not only how much the total exposure dose is, but also how fast the exposure dose is building up.
Total accumulated radiation exposure, or total dose, is expressed as so many roentgens. The rate of radiation exposure at a place of interest is expressed as roentgens per unit of time usually roentgens per hour. This is sometimes called radiation intensity, or radiation level, but more often "dose rate.
These devices are either ratemeters or dosimeters dose meters. A ratemeter will indicate the intensity of the radiation. It is analogous to a speedometer in a car except that it measures roentgens per hour rather than miles per hour. Thus, an indication of whether to leave the shelter for a brief period can be obtained from a ratemeter reading made just outside the shelter.
The dosimeter can be used to show the total amount of radiation to which a person has been exposed during an emergency period. It is analogous to a mileage indicator in a car, but it measures total roentgens rather than miles. A citizen's instrument kit is now commercially available. In the event of a nuclear attack, the set of instruments in the kit can be useful, especially to the occupant of a home shelter. The kit consists of a ratemeter, dosimeter, and charging unit. The ratemeter can be used to measure the intensity dose rate of radiation at a specific time; while the dosimeter is used to measure the total amount of radiation accumulated over a period of time.
Wind currents determine where fallout would be deposited as the result of a nuclear attack. Therefore, in the event of an emergency the U. S; Weather Bureau would prepare and issue forecasts and estimates of areas likely to be covered by fallout to States and territories.
These forecasts can be used to predict where fallout is likely to be deposited and approximately when it will arrive there. The intensity of fallout radiation, however, would not be predicted. Intensity can be determined only after the attack when measurements will be made with instruments. A Federal network of fixed monitor stations is being developed that uses the facilities of many Federal agencies. This network, combined with State and local monitoring, is designed to provide radiation information that can be used to assist in making decisions for protective, remedial, and recovery action.
The Federal Government is providing equipment for radiological monitoring stations and operators are being trained to use this equipment. A total of , monitoring points are being established in protected locations, with communications capability to the local Emergency Operating Center. Some community shelters will be selected to serve as special monitoring and reporting stations.
Such stations will evaluate and report the radiological situation in the shelter and also measure and report unsheltered radiation dose rates and dosages. A radiological monitoring kit is provided that contains dosimeters, ratemeters, charging units, accessories, batteries, and instruction manuals. With these instruments the monitor will be able to provide information to the shelter manager and the local emergency operating center. For example, if dose rates in shelters vary in different locations it might be advisable to move persons to minimize the dose they would receive.
As shown in Chapter I, they can save 40 to million American men, women and children, depending on the nature and weight of an attack. While individual shelters will protect some of the people in a community, the major part of the local population will need protection in community shelters. For this reason, American communities need to devote much of their Civil Defense effort to the preparation of community shelters. Such shelters will provide fallout protection for large groups of people if and when the need arises. In addition to protecting the population against radioactive fallout, community shelters will effectively contribute to postattack recovery.
Trained shelter staffs assigned to each community shelter before the attack can organize their respective shelter groups during the period of shelter occupancy. As organized groups in devastated areas, these survivors may form the nuclei of community recovery efforts. Survivors from home shelters can join these groups during the postshelter period.
Skills identified or utilized during the period of living in community shelters could be very valuable in postshelter operations. The Department of Defense will issue federally procured shelter provisions to local governments for placement in public fallout shelters having a protection factor of 40 or greater radiation outside the shelter would be 40 times greater than radiation inside and a capacity of at least 50 persons. Previously, such provisions were supplied only for those shelters having a protection factor of or greater.
Marking of these additional shelters with official Civil Defense fallout shelter signs was begun during the Cuban crisis. This action is designed to utilize, to the maximum, protection for the people in existing structures. The National Shelter Survey Program has identified over 70 million shelter spaces in existing buildings and in mines, caves, tunnels, and subways, with a protection factor of or greater, and an additional 35 million shelter spaces with protection factors ranging from The shelters with protection factors of or greater tend to be concentrated in cities, and more in the northern than southern regions of our Nation.
The use of shelter spaces in the protection factor range provides a broader base of protection in the areas most deficient in shelter with the higher protection factors. Defense Department studies, approved by the Joint Chiefs of Staff for both military and civil defense planning purposes, indicate that over 90 percent of the people whomight otherwise die from the effects of nuclear radiation could survive in shelters with a 40 protection factor during nuclear attacks which could occur over the next few years. Continuous review of enemy capabilities in relation to shelters with protection factors of 40 to 99 will be made to assure their future adequacy in effectively reducing potential fatalities under predictable radiation conditions.
The National Shelter Survey was undertaken to find and identify those spaces in public and private buildings and in caves, tunnels and subways which could be used for community shelters. Every shelter with sufficient spaces and with a protection factor of 20 or more was considered. Approximately architect and engineering firms were under contract with the Federal Government to carry out the survey. They gathered pertinent data on local structures, assisted in locating the owners of buildings, identified each acceptable space and made cost estimates for improvements.
After the capacities of existing fallout shelters were determined estimates were made on the cost of improving those structures having a protection factor of 40 to 99 and substandard habitability and capacity.
For example, the habitable shelter capacity of many existing buildings can be substantially increased by improving the ventilation. It is estimated that the improvement1 of ventilation alone will provide additional shelter space in existing facilities for millions of people. Building owners are being asked to make their facilities available for use as community shelters, if space on their premises qualify as community shelter sites, by signing a permit of "license.
The owner who has signed such a license has demonstrated patriotism and concern for the safety of his fellow citizens in a very practical and meaningful way. He is entitled to the admiration and thanks of the residents of his area. The National Shelter Survey was undertaken to locate every qualified shelter.
The local Civil Defense Director has the responsibility to decide which qualified shelters that have been licensed by their owners, will be marked and provisioned with food, water, medical kits, radiation detection instruments, and sanitation kits. When an institution such as a school or hospital decides to construct a community shelter or to modify an existing space, the directors of the institutions and Civil Defense Director will be able to participate in the project.
They can help solve such problems as providing efficient shelter construction, fitting the use of the shelter into the overall community plan, preparing the shelter for occupancy, providing adequate warning and communication systems, planning for the earliest possible emergence from the shelter, and training people in the use of radiation detection equipment and other skills needed by the shelter staff.
Through their efforts, they can focus the attention of the entire community on the need for additional community shelter spaces, beyond those located by the survey in existing buildings. A shelter in a school or hospital basement is often only a partial solution to a community's need for emergency shelter spaces. A recognition of the fact may stimulate the energy and resources of the community to develop other shelters and accomplish a more complete solution to the problem of providing community shelter spaces for the entire population.
Recognition of this fact will also result in additional home shelters. Most structures provide some protection against blast, heat and radiation. Many parts of existing buildings provide good protection against fallout radiation and some measure of protection against blast and heat. Good protection against blast usually requires special shelters built of reinforced concrete or steel.
After a nuclear explosion, the greatest danger to people who live outside the areas where nuclear weapons are detonated will be radioactive fallout. A fallout shelter will provide the necessary protection from the hazards of fallout radiation. Personal and other special considerations may make home shelters more practical or desirable for certain individuals or families than community shelters.
For example, in small rural and suburban communities, families may live a considerable distance from the nearest community shelter. For these families, a home shelter will provide more accessible fallout protection. Other families may prefer to have a home shelter for personal reasons.
For most of the population, community shelters provide the best answer to fallout protection. People away from home at the time of an attack should have immediate shelter available. As a member of a group, a person may better face the problems of shelter living. People could expect to find more special skills, for example, medical skills, represented within a group of 50 or more persons than with a small family unit. A large number of people could also share any necessary radiation exposure, for example, in leaving a shelter area for a short time to search for additional supplies.
This would minimize the exposure to each person. A community shelter can also have peacetime uses. It might be used advantageously by the community as a cafeteria, community meeting hall, or as a local Civil Defense Training Center. Community shelters may consist of shielded space in a basement, in underground chambers, in the inner cores of buildings, in subways or in other suitable space. The exact nature of the space or design may vary greatly. A community shelter must provide the minimum essentials required to support life.
There must be sufficient living area and adequate air for the expected number of occupants.
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Ten square feet of floor space per person is considered minimum provided there is adequate ceiling height and at least 3 cubic feet of fresh air per person per minute. Without forced ventilation or adequate natural draft, approximately cubic feet of space for each inhabitant should be allowed. In addition to certain construction details, several other considerations must be included in planning community shelters. One of the most important factors concerns the location of the shelter.
Community shelters should be situated close to population centers. They should be located near the people who will occupy them. An excellent shelter which people cannot reach within a short time is of limited value. Attention should be given to day and night variations in population patterns. For example, on a weekday, large numbers of people are normally concentrated in downtown areas. Late at night or on weekends many are at home or outside the downtown areas. The locations and number of community shelters should include planning for such variations. A shelter should be accessible.
If a shelter is located several floors above the ground, consideration must be given to access by stairway. Because of power failure, elevators or escalators may not be operable. Electric power availability must also be considered in shelter planning. Performance of vital functions will require lighted spaces. There may be injured persons who will need medical aid. Other important functions, such as the operation of communication and ventilation equipment, will also require power.
Therefore, it is desirable in planning to include provision for an alternate power supply where it can be determined that there is a high probability that public power will fail under attack conditions. Fresh air is the most important requirement in a shelter. If the shelter capacity is based on minimum space requirements, then at least 3 cubic feet of fresh air per minute per person are required.
When ventilation is by natural draft, the capacity of a shelter is determined on a volume basis. When the shelter is above ground and can be adequately ventilated, 10 square feet per person is the basis for determining the capacity. Good grade commercial filters are desirable on mechanical ventilation systems.
If filters are used they should be properly shielded. Heating devices which utilize a flame should not be used in a shelter because they consume valuable oxygen and may endanger the shelter occupants. When new buildings are being constructed, fallout protection should be included in the designs. For example, the "safety core" design concept used in the school shown in figure 31 will provide adequate fallout protection for a nominal sum. The thick-walled central core with a concrete roof contains activity rooms which are divided and reinforced by the walls of the library and rest rooms.
Baffle walls projecting from the building shield the surrounding classroom windows. Many communities or neighborhoods need meeting places for various civic groups and local organizations. Others may require space for a community recreation hall or cafeteria or for public automobile parking. Teenagers often need a place for their after-school activities. A community shelter can serve these and similar purposes. In figure32 a PTA meeting is adjourning for coffee in one section of the shelter while people are using the branch library in another section.
An underground shelter such as this can be built under a playground or other public property without interfering with the present uses of the aboveground area. In a civil defense emergency, proper staffing, management, and operation of a community fallout shelter can be vital to the survival of shelter occupants. Those in the shelter must function under an organized plan which takes into account the peculiar problems of shelter life, the special dangers of radioactive fallout, and the need for cooperation.
Shelter supplies provided by the Federal Government are the minimum needed to sustain life. Food is limited to specially prepared crackers. No blankets or cots will be provided under the Federal Shelter-Provisioning Program. However, communities may augment the federally supplied material at their own option and expense. Another solution is for families to bring essential supplies with them to community shelters. The plans that must be made for living and surviving in a community shelter must take into account the many physical and psychological problems that could arise.
Childbirth, injury and death will occur in the shelters. Occupants may be crowded with little oppor tunit y to move abou t. Th e y will en c ounter an una cc ustomed lack of privacy , unfamiliar nois e s, u n ple a s a nt odors , and other dis c omforts or in c onv e nien ces. Feder a lly sto c k e d food will sust a in life , but will be monotonous.
C ertain foods and supplies may be in short supply or nonexistent. Some occupants m a y be worried ab out th e ir own c h a nc e s for survival , a bout mi ss in g member s of their f a milies, a nd about the cir c umstances of postattack living. In such situations it would not be surpri s ing if some occupants s uffered mental a n g uish and annoy e d other s in the group. Prior planning and org a nization must contemplate handling su c h situ at ions.
In e a ch localit y, planning a ctiv i ties ar e c a rried out und e r the guidan c e of a lo c al C i v il Defens e Dir ec tor. He and his st a ff of trained per s onnel deal with the o v erall probl e ms rel a t e d to c ommunity sur v i v al and s ele ct a nd train other persons to t a ke lead e rship responsibili t ie s in lo ca l c ommunity shelt e rs. Each lo c al a rea should have a protected emergency op e rating c enter , whi c h will provide a "seat of governm e n t" during em e r ge ncies , hou s ing for lo ca l governmental offici a l s a nd the C ivil Def e n se st a ff.
In a typical plan for community shelter organization, the shelter m a nager will have to have help with various aspects of shelter direction. In many shelters there will be need for a deputy for operations to oversee on-going shelter functions; a deputy for education and information to oversee the activities of community shelter occupants; and a deputy for supply and maintenance to oversee all shelter material needs. In some shelters, the shelter manager will also need an administrative assistant who will transcribe staff messages and reports, keep the shelter log , and relieve the manager of as much operational detail as possible.
In those communities where preattack assignments of people to specific shelters can be made, other shelter duties can be distributed among the expected occupants. In most community shelters, however, the staff will have to be selected from among the shelter occupants, based on the skills and knowledge found among them. Each shelter should have a small advisory committee to act as a. The committee would be responsible for presenting problems to the manager and his deputies and for communicating to the group any problems the management may be experiencing.
The deputy for operations and members of his staff radiological monitors, the chief of safety-police and fire control-sanitation and feeding personnel must organize the physical layout of the shelter for most efficient use. They must plan the registration and feeding arrangements. During the period of shelter confinement, they must oversee all shelter safety, health and sanitary facilities and generally maintain order. The deputy for operations and the radiological monitors direct the operation of all monitoring and communications equipment. Throughout the period of shelter confinement, a hour monitoring and communications watch should be maintained.
The deputy for information and education will take charge of informational programs during the period of shelter confinement. He and his staff will prepare announcements, conduct dis c ussions, and otherwise keep occupants informed. They will also promote recreational and social activities designed to maintain morale and meet spiritual needs. Discussions conducted during the period of shelter occupancy will stress the needs of the expected postattack environment. Limited physical exercise and social activities can be important in reducing the tensions of shelter confinement and some participation by all, regardless of age, sex, or ability, should be encouraged.
In order to carry out his responsibilities during the current period of shelter preparation, the deputy for information and education may be stocking as many books, games, writing materials and similar supplies in the shelter as he can obtain through donations from the community. He should try to provide items for all age and interest groups expected to occupy the shelter.
Since shelter space is at a premium, this type of material should be compact and not reduce the capacity of the shelter. During the current period of shelter preparation, the deputy of maintenance and supply and his staff should acquire supplies, both from governmental sources and community contributions, and look after their proper storage and maintenance. During the period of actual shelter occupancy, the supply staff will be in charge of and will issue all shelter supplies, including food, water, drugs and other heath and sanitation items.
Supplies should be stored so they are protected and can be issued in an orderly manner. When the radiation levels outside the shelter are low enough to allow for brief journeys outside, additional supplies may be brought from nearby sources. Men of the community should be selected and trained as auxiliary policemen to serve in shelters.
When an actual warning is received, these men will direct others to the shelter and will assist in maintaining law and order within the shelter throughout the period of occupancy. They must be men who can exercise good judgment under stress, for they must be needed to calm excited and emotionally disturbed people. Other duties for which men and women may be selected and trained during the current period of shelter preparation include those of distributing food and water, rescue and fire prevention.
Persons trained in medical self-help, in radiological monitoring, and in the operation of communications equipment will be vital to the successful operation of any community shelter. The shelter manager and his staff should try to confine their activities to meeting serious emergencies. Problems directly involving health and safety should remain staff responsibilities. In other matters, however, shelter occupants should be encouraged to solve their own problems, including certain behavior difficulties. Occupants must be encouraged to develop self-reliance, to help one another, to adjust willingly to the needs of others, and to help keep formal operating rules a matter of general agreement.
The more occupants do for themselves, the more they will lighten the load on the shelter staff and less tension will result. Effective and orderly shelter living will depend to a great extent on the occupants and their willingness to cooperate.
In conjunction with the National Shelter Survey, the Federal Government is marking and stocking acceptable community shelters with certain essential supplies and equipment. These supplies are secured from Federal warehouses. The anticipated shelf life of these supplies is approximately five years. Each shelter will be stocked with a minimum quantity of food and water. A 10,calories supply of food will be provided for each perso n i n the form o f s pecia l crac k ers resemb lin g gra h a m crac k e r s.
Water co n ta i ners, a l s o s u pplied by t h e Federa l Government, wi ll be fi ll ed wit h water. O n ce empty, t he water containers can be u se d as chemica l toi l ets. S peci al Suppli e s. In any sh e l ter whe r e occ up ants may b e expecte d to i nc lu de di abetics or c hron ic inva li ds, s u ppl i es sho uld inc l ude i ns ul in, hypo d ermic need l es, and specia l dr u gs and foo d s. I nfant s or very sma ll c hildr e n wil l n eed powdered formula mixtures, canned or powdered milk, water, canned baby foods, nursing b o ttles and nipples, a nursing bottle funnel, and an adequate supply of disposable diapers.
Such special supplies Should be brought in by the persons needing them. Care must be taken to ensure proper storage of the items in the shelter. Storage should be carefully planned so that no more space i s taken up than is absolutely necessary. However, certain safeguards are required. The package is intended to protect the product from physical damage and chemical deteriorat i on. Temperature is the most important variable condi t ion in storage of s helter supplies, with relative humidity next in importance. High storage temperature, dampness, and insect or rodent infestation are the major causes of deterioration of packaged products.
Rigid supervision and cooperation will be required for best utilization and distribution of the limited supplies. Since much of any damage which may occur will be "hidden," thorough periodic inspections are necessary. One of th e m o st effe c tive ways to minimize an x iety is to keep busy. Memb e r s of e v ery f amily s hould l ea rn the lo cat ion of shelt e r s in areas they frequent.
When a person visits a new or unfamiliar ar e a, he would do well to mak e a point of noting nearby sh e lt e r marker s. There w ill be little room for personal p osses s i on s o t h e r than s p ec ial medi c in es , drugs or specifi c items reque s ted by local C ivil Defen se a uthoritie s. Wh e n a n individual reaches shelter , s ome staff members m a y a lready be pr ese n t. All o c cupants will provide s uch records. Childr e n and invalids will have the s e forms filled o ut by rela t i ves or sta ff m e m be r s.
Effo r ts wi ll be m a d e t o ass ign duti es ac c ording to abiliti e s and pr e feren ces. It is quite po ss ible that the c ommunity's Civil Def e nse program will encourage p e ople to bring cert a in items, such a s blank e ts, into the sh e l te r. During the period of shelter occupan c y it is anticipat e d, based on extensive test s, that mo s t peopl e will be unhappy but norm a l.
A bnormal or di s turbed beh a vior w ill va ry from indi v idu a l t o indi vi du a l in this group. Som e may a pp e ar unu s ually exc ited. A few m a y exhibit only a slight nervou s m a nnerism or tic. Al l in thi s group need help. Everyone mu s t try to b e toler a n t of the situation b ec ause s o me of the s e di s turbed people will r e cover in a s h o r t time.
People under tension often need a chance to talk. They n e ed simple ta s ks to take th e ir mind s off th e ir experien ce a nd to g ive them a chance. Serious cas es s hould, a s soon a s possible, be ref e rred to tr a ined s t af f workers. Accord i n gl y, pl ans a nd pr o cedures for bringing home supplies into an unsto c k e d community shelter should be d e v e loped in cooperation with local Civil Defense off i cials. Th e i t ems tha t should b e c on s idered for inclu s ion in a portable f o od and w ate r kit are li st ed on page So ap a nd disinfectants will b e in c luded in community shelter sto c ks.
However , some p e ople may wish to pr e par e a small emerg e n c y kit for p e r s onal hygi e n e , to b e carried into the community shelt e r. B l a nkets and e xtr a clothin g ar e v aluabl e additional items which ' the c ommunit y ma y want to includ e in shelt e r stocks. Match es w ill be n ee d e d, a nd s hould be kept in a waterproof c on t ain e r. Th e y ca n b e rolled into ti g h t , st i ff t ub e s to be used as eme r gen c y splints ; t h e y ca n b e spread under bedding or inside clothing a s insulation. Also, one-third or more of every day will probably be needed for sleeping.
Therefore, arrangements should include measures to make shelter occupants as comfortable as conditions will allow. If beds are not available or if the number is limited, some shelter occupants will have to sleep on the floor. A blanket, jacket or coat may serve as a pad or for covering. Depending on the configuration of each shelter, variations can be made in sleeping patterns. If, for example, there is a separate room connected to the main shelter area, people may sleep in shifts.
This will reduce the space required for sleeping. While one group is sleeping, the remaining shelter occupants will be able to continue with shelter activities. The number of people occupying a community shelter requires careful attention to sanitation. Cleanliness and the proper disposal of wastes are vital to the prevention of disease, and here, even more than elsewhere, "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure.
Medical supplies will be limited. If contagious illnesses break out in the confined space of the shelter, there may be no way to control them. It is the responsibility of every community shelter occupant to keep himself as clean as possible and to encourage those around him to be scrupulously clean during the entire period of shelter confinement. Severely limited supplies of soap and water may prevent washing as often as desired, but full use should be made of cleaning opportunities. Any disinfectants available should be used.
Special efforts should be made to keep hands clean. If the food supply is limited to the basic shelter crackers, the cleaning problem after meals will be minimized. If more elaborate rations are available, there will be a greater problem in disposing of meal scraps. In any case, everyone should do everything possible to keep areas where food is prepared and eaten free of crumbs and dirt.
Latrine areas should also be regularly swept, mopped, and treated with a germicidal solution, if available. The entire shelter should receive a sanitary inspection at least once every day, and the latrine area should be inspected at least twice daily. A home shelter should be stocked with necessary cleansing materials see Chapter VI and the occupants should use them frequently. In the confined isolated environment of the home shelter there may be a strong temptation to let standards of cleanliness slide, but remember that such neglect can easily endanger the family's health.
Whether a family is preparing to go into a community shelter or into a home shelter, there should be plans for activities which will help pass the time more quickly, take people's minds off their worries, and help to prepare people for life in the post attack environment. Most of these activities require supplies which should be placed in the shelter ahead of time.
In the community shelters, there will be staff persons assigned to direct informational and recreational activities. Individuals may want to donate supplies that would be helpful in a shelter activity program, in the event that the shelter ever has to be occupied. In any community shelter where no priest, minister, or rabbi is present, the best-qualified laymen will be asked to take charge of religious activities. Keeping up religious observances during the period of shelter confinement.
Clergymen and laymen will find Bibles, other books of spiritual guidance, and religious articles appropriate to various faiths helpful in bringing spiritual comfort to shelter occupants. Religious observances in a home shelter will also be enhanced by the presence of Bibles and other spiritual books. Clergymen can be of great service in advising family members of appropriate and available spiritual helps. A book of prayers or a devotional guide will prove its worth in time of emergency. If the community contains many c hildren of s c hool age, c ommunity l e aders should try to have th e m continu e s o me of t heir s c hoolwork while c onfined to the s helter.
A side from the future value of thi s l ea rning, it h e lp s gi ve c hildr e n a feeling of norm a l c y and c onfid e n c e. A bookshelf in e ith e r a c ommunity or a home s helt e r might include a s ample of books on sc hool subj ec ts to allow t e a c her s or parent s to organize activiti e s similar to regul a r s chool w ork during shelter c onfinement.
Note paper, pen c ils, a nd other schoolwork equipment should be sto c ked if s pa c e permit s. Keepin g d a ily journals may be helpful for a dults as w ell as c hildren. Some m e mbers of t h e c ommunity m a y want to d o nate a supply of books to be plac e d in the c ommunity s helter ne a re s t th e m. E ve ryone will prob a bly b e doing mu c h more reading than u s u a l. Bo t h books a nd m a gazine s will h e lp to p ass the time. In a ddi t ion to nov e l s, fi c tion and fa c tual books , the s h e lter library might include books of riddles, brain tea s ers , and c ro s sword puzzle s.
Home shelters, too, should c ontain a good sto c k of a ll kinds of reading matter, suitable to the ages and intere s ts of family m e mber s. It is s trongly re c ommend e d that s helt e r s be s tocked with s ong books or song sheets. Singing has h e lped people ke e p up t heir s pirits in many painful or fright e ning situations. The be s t kind o f g a m e i s one that is so a b s orbing that it turns t he player's attention completely away from hi s current diffi c ult i es.
The person arranging shelt e r amusements should choose games that will not create too much noi s e when they are played, since shelter occupants may be ill or asleep at the time others want to play. Games likely to arouse arguments should be avoided. Those that can be played by one person or several, such as jigsaw puzzles, will be especially useful.
A c ommunity shelter or home shelter might well contain inexpensive equipment for such activitie s as dr a wing , painting, cl a y-modeling, or pap e r- c ut t ing. Supplies for knitting or s e wing might al s o be in c luded. H a ndi c raft equipment s hould not be limited to types requiring bright light. The s helter light supply m ay b e dim, a nd, in any cas e , it will be import a nt to s ave the brighte s t li g hts a s much a s po ss ible. During the per io d o f communi ty sh e l t er occ up ancy, staf f l ea d ers should conduct group sessions to di s cu s s pr o blems of shelter living including the s helter or g aniz a tion , indi v idual a nd g roup r es p o n s ibilities, the need for c on s er v in g suppli es, and s a fet y preca u tion s.
S imilarly, family member s in a home s helter s h ould d isc us s the pr o bable sit u a tion ou ts ide , d a n g er s of the po s tatt ac k e n v ir o nm e nt s , an d f a mily needs, before allowing a nyone to emerge , h oweve r bri e fly. Of c our se , only when the r a dio has announced that lo ca l r a dia t ion has rea c h e d r e latively low le ve l s s hould anyone plan to go out exce pt for t he most v i tal of reasons.
Other skill s that m i ght be ac quired are t ho s e in fire pr e ven ti on a nd fir e fighting, rescue work, and the oper a tion of communi cat i ons e quipment. Special Civil Defense training cour s es ha ve b ee n de s igned to enable volunt e ers to a c quire the s e and other emerg e n c y s kills.
Th is c our s e in c lud es inform at ion on caring for t he s ick , t he inju re d, an d e m e rgency c hildbirth. Informat i on about the availability of thi s cou r se m a y be obtained from local civil defense and public h e alth organiza t ions. The local civil defen s e dire c tor c an al s o furnish information about t he tr a ining offered to shelter st a ff memb e rs described in Chapter VIII. For e xample , t his tr a inin g en a bl es s hel te r st a ff memb e r s, i n t ime of emergen cy, to act as sh e lter mana g er s, a uxili a ry poli c e or firemen, augmenting professionals.
I m provised s h e lt e r s, ho weve r, can be construc t ed th a t will pr ovid e n ecessa r y p r otect ion. Plans for a family fallout shelter should include provision s for cont i nuous low-level lighting, since, in total darkness, many peopl e might find shelter life unbearable. Also, brighter light will be needed occasionally for reading or for emergencies. Candles, k e ros e ne, or g a soline-burning lamps should not be u s ed in a home s helter.
Su c h nonelectrical sources of light use oxygen from the air, give off carbon monoxide as they burn, and constitute a fire haz a rd. After a nuclear attack, many community elect r ic power stations may continue to function. If electric power from the house circuits can be used, light can be furnished i n the shelter without stor a ge batteries.
Nevertheless, b a tteries should be kept in the shelter to provide light when central electrical power fails. Fresh batter i es should be kept in the shelter area at all t imes. The effectiveness of shelter-light sources can be increased by painting the shelter ceiling white. In addition, me t al or metallic foil reflectors should be installed behind each light bulb for greater lighting efficiency.
The air in most basement shelters is circulat e d by convection c urrents through an open shelter entrance and low vents in the inside walls or through cracks and crevices in entrances piled with sandbags. The diamond masonry blade is best for cutting block, masonry siding products, and other masonry materials. It features a faster cut rate at a constant depth. It is ideally used on thinner and softer m Masonry Anchor 4pk masonry anchor. Used in concrete or masonry installation. For fastening furring strips, floor plates, and partition walls. For best results drive nails 3" or more from edge of masonr Safety glasses recommended when driving hardened nails.
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Shelter supplies provided by the Federal Government are the minimum needed to sustain life. Masonry Heaters is a complete guide to designing and living with one of the oldest, and yet one of the newest, heating devices. The locations and number of community shelters should include planning for such variations. With these instruments the monitor will be able to provide information to the shelter manager and the local emergency operating center. Po w dered m il k, a l tho u gh not us u a ll y a p r eferred beverage, sh o u l d be s tocked, a l ong w ith smal l cans of evaporated mi lk.
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