Heroes and Romans in Twelfth-Century Byzantium

Heroes and Romans in Twelfth-Century Byzantium: The Material for History of Nikephoros Bryennios

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Efforts by the Emperor David to recruit European powers for an anti-Ottoman crusade provoked war between the Ottomans and Trebizond in the summer of After a month-long siege, David surrendered the city of Trebizond on 14 August The Empire of Trebizond's Crimean principality, the Principality of Theodoro part of the Perateia , lasted another 14 years, falling to the Ottomans in December He lived in the Morea until its fall in , then escaped to Rome where he lived under the protection of the Papal States for the remainder of his life. Since the office of emperor had never been technically hereditary, Andreas' claim would have been without merit under Byzantine law.

However, the Empire had vanished, and Western states generally followed the Roman-church-sanctioned principles of hereditary sovereignty. Constantine XI died without producing an heir, and had Constantinople not fallen he might have been succeeded by the sons of his deceased elder brother, who were taken into the palace service of Mehmed II after the fall of Constantinople.

Mehmed II and his successors continued to consider themselves heirs to the Roman Empire until the demise of the Ottoman Empire in the early 20th century following World War 1. Meanwhile, the Danubian Principalities whose rulers also considered themselves the heirs of the Eastern Roman Emperors [] harboured Orthodox refugees, including some Byzantine nobles.

He had married Andreas' sister, Sophia Paleologue , whose grandson, Ivan IV , would become the first Tsar of Russia tsar , or czar , meaning caesar , is a term traditionally applied by Slavs to the Byzantine Emperors. Their successors supported the idea that Moscow was the proper heir to Rome and Constantinople. The idea of the Russian Empire as the successive Third Rome was kept alive until its demise with the Russian Revolution.

In the Byzantine state, the emperor was the sole and absolute ruler , and his power was regarded as having divine origin. By the end of the 8th century, a civil administration focused on the court was formed as part of a large-scale consolidation of power in the capital the rise to pre-eminence of the position of sakellarios is related to this change.

The Material for History of Nikephoros Bryennios

Despite the occasionally derogatory use of the terms "Byzantine" and " Byzantinism ", the Byzantine bureaucracy had a distinct ability for reconstituting itself in accordance with the Empire's situation. The elaborate system of titulature and precedence gave the court prestige and influence. Officials were arranged in strict order around the emperor, and depended upon the imperial will for their ranks. There were also actual administrative jobs, but authority could be vested in individuals rather than offices. In the 8th and 9th centuries, civil service constituted the clearest path to aristocratic status, but, starting in the 9th century, the civil aristocracy was rivalled by an aristocracy of nobility.

According to some studies of Byzantine government, 11th-century politics were dominated by competition between the civil and the military aristocracy. During this period, Alexios I undertook important administrative reforms, including the creation of new courtly dignities and offices. After the fall of Rome, the key challenge to the Empire was to maintain a set of relations between itself and its neighbours. When these nations set about forging formal political institutions, they often modelled themselves on Constantinople.

Byzantine diplomacy soon managed to draw its neighbours into a network of international and inter-state relations. For example, a Bulgarian threat could be countered by providing money to the Kievan Rus'. Diplomacy in the era was understood to have an intelligence-gathering function on top of its pure political function.

The Bureau of Barbarians in Constantinople handled matters of protocol and record keeping for any issues related to the " barbarians ", and thus had, perhaps, a basic intelligence function itself. Bury believed that the office exercised supervision over all foreigners visiting Constantinople, and that they were under the supervision of the Logothetes tou dromou.

Byzantines availed themselves of a number of diplomatic practices. For example, embassies to the capital would often stay on for years. A member of other royal houses would routinely be requested to stay on in Constantinople, not only as a potential hostage, but also as a useful pawn in case political conditions where he came from changed. Another key practice was to overwhelm visitors by sumptuous displays. The writings of Classical antiquity were cultivated and extended in Byzantium.

Therefore, Byzantine science was in every period closely connected with ancient philosophy , and metaphysics. Byzantines stood behind several technological advancements.

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Pendentive architecture, a specific spherical form in the upper corners to support a dome, is a Byzantine invention. Although the first experimentation was made in the s, it was in the 6th-century in the Byzantine Empire that its potential was fully achieved. A mechanical sundial device consisting of complex gears made by the Byzantines has been excavated which indicates that the Antikythera mechanism , a sort of analog device used in astronomy and invented around the late second century BC, continued to be re active in the Byzantine period.

Constantinople was full of inventors and craftsmen. The "philosopher" Leo of Thessalonika made for the Emperor Theophilos —42 a golden tree, the branches of which carried artificial birds which flapped their wings and sang, a model lion which moved and roared, and a bejewelled clockwork lady who walked. These mechanical toys continued the tradition represented in the treatise of Heron of Alexandria c.

Such mechanical devices reached a high level of sophistication and were made in order to impress visitors. Leo the Mathematician has also been credited with the system of beacons , a sort of optical telegraph, stretching across Anatolia from Cilicia to Constantinople, which gave advance warning of enemy raids, and which was used as diplomatic communication as well. The Byzantines knew and used the concept of hydraulics: John Philoponus , an Alexandrian philologist, Aristotelian commentator and Christian theologian, author of a considerable number of philosophical treatises and theological works, was the first who questioned Aristotle's teaching of physics, despite its flaws.

Unlike Aristotle, who based his physics on verbal argument, Philoponus relied on observation. In his Commentaries on Aristotle, Philoponus wrote:. But this is completely erroneous, and our view may be corroborated by actual observation more effectively than by any sort of verbal argument. For if you let fall from the same height two weights of which one is many times as heavy as the other, you will see that the ratio of the times required for the motion does not depend on the ratio of the weights, but that the difference in time is a very small one.

And so, if the difference in the weights is not considerable, that is, of one is, let us say, double the other, there will be no difference, or else an imperceptible difference, in time, though the difference in weight is by no means negligible, with one body weighing twice as much as the other. John Philoponus' criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics was an inspiration for Galileo Galilei's refutation of Aristotelian physics during the Scientific Revolution many centuries later, as Galileo cited Philoponus substantially in his works.

The ship mill is a Byzantine invention, designed to mill grains using hydraulic power. The technology eventually spread to the rest of Europe and was in use until c. It not only summarized the laws, but also gave direction on interpretation. Under the reign of Justinian I it was Tribonian , a notable jurist, who supervised the revision of the legal code known today as Corpus Juris Civilis. In the field of law, Justinian I 's reforms had a clear effect on the evolution of jurisprudence , with his Corpus Juris Civilis becoming the basis for revived Roman law in the Western world, while Leo III's Ecloga influenced the formation of legal institutions in the Slavic world.

In the 10th century, Leo VI the Wise achieved the complete codification of the whole of Byzantine law in Greek with the Basilika , which became the foundation of all subsequent Byzantine law with an influence extending through to modern Balkan legal codes.

The Byzantines pioneered the concept of the hospital as an institution offering medical care and possibility of a cure for the patients, as a reflection of the ideals of Christian charity, rather than merely a place to die. Although the concept of uroscopy was known to Galen, he did not see the importance of using it to diagnose disease. It was Byzantine physicians, such as Theophilus Protospatharius , who realized the diagnostic potential of uroscopy in a time when no microscope or stethoscope existed.

That practice eventually spread to the rest of Europe. In medicine the works of Byzantine doctors, such as the Vienna Dioscorides 6th century , and works of Paul of Aegina 7th century and Nicholas Myrepsos late 13th century , continued to be used as the authoritative texts by Europeans through the Renaissance. The latter one invented the Aurea Alexandrina which was a kind of opiate or antidote. The first known example of separating conjoined twins happened in the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century when a pair of conjoined twins from Armenia came to Constantinople.

Many years later one of them died, so the surgeons in Constantinople decided to remove the body of the dead one. The result was partly successful, as the surviving twin lived three days before dying, a result so impressive that it was mentioned a century and half later by historians. The next case of separating conjoined twins would not occur until in Germany. Greek Fire , an incendiary weapon which could even burn on water is also attributed to the Byzantines.

It played a crucial role in the Empire's victory over the Umayyad Caliphate during the Siege of Constantinople — The first example of a grenade also appeared in Byzantine Empire, consisting of ceramic jars holding glass and nails, and filled with the explosive component of Greek Fire. It was used on battlefields. The first examples of hand-held flamethrower also occurred in the Byzantine Empire in the 10th century, where infantry unites were to be equipped with hand pumps and swivel tubes used to project the flame.

Counterweight Trebuchet was also invented in the Byzantine Empire during the reign of Alexios I Komnenos under the Komnenian restoration when the Byzantines used this new-developed siege weaponry to devastate citadels and fortifications. This siege artillery marked the apogee of siege weaponry prior to the use of the cannon. From the Byzantines the armies of Europe and Asia eventually learned and adopted this siege weaponry.

In the final century of the Empire, astronomy and other mathematical sciences were taught in Trebizond; medicine attracted the interest of almost all scholars. During this period, refugee Byzantine scholars were principally responsible for carrying, in person and in writing, ancient Greek grammatical, literary studies, mathematical, and astronomical knowledge to early Renaissance Italy.

The Byzantine Empire was a theocracy , said to be ruled by God working through the Emperor. Jennifer Fretland VanVoorst argues, "The Byzantine Empire became a theocracy in the sense that Christian values and ideals were the foundation of the empire's political ideals and heavily entwined with its political goals. The constitution of the Byzantine Empire was based on the conviction that it was the earthly copy of the Kingdom of Heaven. Just as God ruled in Heaven, so the Emperor, made in his image, should rule on earth and carry out his commandments It saw itself as a universal empire.

Ideally, it should embrace all the peoples of the Earth who, ideally, should all be members of the one true Christian Church, its own Orthodox Church. Just as man was made in God's image, so man's kingdom on Earth was made in the image of the Kingdom of Heaven.

The survival of the Empire in the East assured an active role of the Emperor in the affairs of the Church. The Byzantine state inherited from pagan times the administrative, and financial routine of administering religious affairs, and this routine was applied to the Christian Church.

Following the pattern set by Eusebius of Caesarea , the Byzantines viewed the Emperor as a representative or messenger of Christ , responsible particularly for the propagation of Christianity among pagans, and for the "externals" of the religion, such as administration and finances. As Cyril Mango points out, the Byzantine political thinking can be summarised in the motto "One God, one empire, one religion". The imperial role in the affairs of the Church never developed into a fixed, legally defined system. As George Ostrogorsky points out:.

The Patriarchate of Constantinople remained the center of the Orthodox world, with subordinate metropolitan sees and archbishoprics in the territory of Asia Minor and the Balkans, now lost to Byzantium, as well as in Caucasus , Russia and Lithuania. The Church remained the most stable element in the Byzantine Empire. The official state Christian doctrine was determined by the first seven ecumenical councils , and it was then the emperor's duty to impose it on his subjects.

An imperial decree of , which was later incorporated into the Codex Justinianus , orders the population of the Empire "to assume the name of Catholic Christians", and regards all those who will not abide by the law as "mad and foolish persons"; as followers of "heretical dogmas". Despite imperial decrees and the stringent stance of the state church itself, which came to be known as the Eastern Orthodox Church or Eastern Christianity , the latter never represented all Christians in Byzantium. Mango believes that, in the early stages of the Empire, the "mad and foolish persons", those labelled " heretics " by the state church, were the majority of the population.

This led to a significant religious crisis , which ended in the mid-9th century with the restoration of icons. During the same period, a new wave of pagans emerged in the Balkans, originating mainly from Slavic people. These were gradually Christianised , and by Byzantium's late stages, Eastern Orthodoxy represented most Christians and, in general, most people in what remained of the Empire. Jews were a significant minority in the Byzantine state throughout its history, and, according to Roman law, they constituted a legally recognised religious group. In the early Byzantine period they were generally tolerated, but then periods of tensions and persecutions ensued.

In any case, after the Arab conquests, the majority of Jews found themselves outside the Empire; those left inside the Byzantine borders apparently lived in relative peace from the 10th century onwards. Georgian monasteries first appear in Constantinople and on Mount Olympos in northwestern Asia Minor in the second half of the ninth century, and from then on Georgians played an increasingly important role in the Empire. Surviving Byzantine art is mostly religious and with exceptions at certain periods is highly conventionalised, following traditional models that translate carefully controlled church theology into artistic terms.

Painting in fresco , illuminated manuscripts and on wood panel and, especially in earlier periods, mosaic were the main media, and figurative sculpture very rare except for small carved ivories. Manuscript painting preserved to the end some of the classical realist tradition that was missing in larger works. This was especially so in Italy, where Byzantine styles persisted in modified form through the 12th century, and became formative influences on Italian Renaissance art.

But few incoming influences affected Byzantine style. By means of the expansion of the Eastern Orthodox church, Byzantine forms and styles spread to all the Orthodox world and beyond. In Byzantine literature, four different cultural elements are recognised: Byzantine literature is often classified in five groups: The only genuine heroic epic of the Byzantines is the Digenis Acritas. The remaining two groups include the new literary species: Of the approximately two to three thousand volumes of Byzantine literature that survive, only consist of secular poetry, history, science and pseudo-science.

The ecclesiastical forms of Byzantine music, composed to Greek texts as ceremonial, festival, or church music, [] are, today, the most well-known forms. Ecclesiastical chants were a fundamental part of this genre. Greek and foreign historians agree that the ecclesiastical tones and in general the whole system of Byzantine music is closely related to the ancient Greek system. The 9th century Persian geographer Ibn Khurradadhbih d.

The second instrument, the organ, originated in the Hellenistic world see Hydraulis and was used in the Hippodrome during races. Pepin's son Charlemagne requested a similar organ for his chapel in Aachen in , beginning its establishment in Western church music. Dio Chrysostom wrote in the 1st century of a contemporary sovereign possibly Nero who could play a pipe tibia , Roman reedpipes similar to Greek aulos with his mouth as well as by tucking a bladder beneath his armpit. The Byzantine culture was, initially, the same as Late Greco-Roman, but over the following millennium of the empire's existence it slowly changed into something more similar to modern Balkan and Anatolian culture.

Retsina , wine flavored with pine resin, was also drunk, as it still is in Greece today, producing similar reactions from unfamiliar visitors; "To add to our calamity the Greek wine, on account of being mixed with pitch, resin, and plaster was to us undrinkable," complained Liutprand of Cremona , who was the ambassador sent to Constantinople in by the German Holy Roman Emperor Otto I. For most of its history, the Byzantine Empire did not know or use heraldry in the West European sense.

The use of the cross, and of images of Christ , the Virgin Mary and various saints is also attested on seals of officials, but these were personal rather than family emblems. Apart from the Imperial court, administration and military, the primary language used in the eastern Roman provinces even before the decline of the Western Empire was Greek, having been spoken in the region for centuries before Latin. Indeed, early on in the life of the Roman Empire, Greek had become the common language of the Church, the language of scholarship and the arts, and, to a large degree, the lingua franca for trade between provinces and with other nations.

In the early 5th century, Greek gained equal status with Latin as official language in the East and emperors gradually began to legislate in Greek rather than Latin starting with the reign of Leo I the Thracian in the s. He may also have been the last native Latin-speaking emperor. The use of Latin as the language of administration persisted until adoption of Greek as the sole official language by Heraclius in the 7th century. Scholarly Latin would rapidly fall into disuse among the educated classes although the language would continue to be at least a ceremonial part of the Empire's culture for some time.

Many other languages existed in the multi-ethnic Empire, and some of these were given limited official status in their provinces at various times. Notably, by the beginning of the Middle Ages, Syriac had become more widely used by the educated classes in the far eastern provinces. Aside from these languages, since Constantinople was a prime trading center in the Mediterranean region and beyond, virtually every known language of the Middle Ages was spoken in the Empire at some time, even Chinese.

Byzantines were avid players of tavli Byzantine Greek: The game came from Sassanid Persia in the early period and a Tzykanisterion stadium for playing the game was built by Theodosius II r. Emperor Basil I r. The Byzantine economy was among the most advanced in Europe and the Mediterranean for many centuries.

Europe, in particular, could not match Byzantine economic strength until late in the Middle Ages. Constantinople operated as a prime hub in a trading network that at various times extended across nearly all of Eurasia and North Africa , in particular as the primary western terminus of the famous Silk Road. Until the first half of the 6th century and in sharp contrast with the decaying West, the Byzantine economy was flourishing and resilient.

The Plague of Justinian and the Arab conquests would represent a substantial reversal of fortunes contributing to a period of stagnation and decline. Isaurian reforms and, in particular, Constantine V 's repopulation, public works and tax measures, marked the beginning of a revival that continued until , despite territorial contraction. The Fourth Crusade resulted in the disruption of Byzantine manufacturing and the commercial dominance of the Western Europeans in the eastern Mediterranean , events that amounted to an economic catastrophe for the Empire. Gradually, it also lost its influence on the modalities of trade and the price mechanisms, and its control over the outflow of precious metals and, according to some scholars, even over the minting of coins.

One of the economic foundations of Byzantium was trade, fostered by the maritime character of the Empire. Textiles must have been by far the most important item of export; silks were certainly imported into Egypt, and appeared also in Bulgaria, and the West. The government attempted to exercise formal control over interest rates, and set the parameters for the activity of the guilds and corporations, in which it had a special interest.

The emperor and his officials intervened at times of crisis to ensure the provisioning of the capital, and to keep down the price of cereals. Finally, the government often collected part of the surplus through taxation, and put it back into circulation, through redistribution in the form of salaries to state officials, or in the form of investment in public works.

Byzantium has been often identified with absolutism, orthodox spirituality, orientalism and exoticism, while the terms "Byzantine" and "Byzantinism" have been used as bywords for decadence, complex bureaucracy, and repression. In the countries of Central and Southeast Europe that exited the Eastern Bloc in the late s and early s, the assessment of Byzantine civilisation and its legacy was strongly negative due to their connection with an alleged "Eastern authoritarianism and autocracy.

Even in 19th-century Greece , the focus was mainly on the classical past, while Byzantine tradition had been associated with negative connotations. This traditional approach towards Byzantium has been partially or wholly disputed and revised by modern studies, which focus on the positive aspects of Byzantine culture and legacy. Averil Cameron regards as undeniable the Byzantine contribution to the formation of medieval Europe, and both Cameron and Obolensky recognise the major role of Byzantium in shaping Orthodoxy, which in turn occupies a central position in the history and societies of Greece, Romania, Bulgaria, Russia, Georgia, Serbia and other countries.

As the only stable long-term state in Europe during the Middle Ages, Byzantium isolated Western Europe from newly emerging forces to the East. From a different perspective, since the 7th century, the evolution and constant reshaping of the Byzantine state were directly related to the respective progress of Islam. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

This article is about the medieval Roman empire. For other uses, see Byzantine disambiguation. Solidus with the image of Heraclius r. The empire in AD under Justinian the Great , at its greatest extent since the fall of the Western Roman Empire its vassals in pink. The Empire of Nicaea is considered the legitimate continuation of the Byzantine Empire because they managed to re-take Constantinople.

He died in AD, dividing the empire in western and eastern halves. Laiou, The Economic History of Byzantium , Part of a series on the. Art Government Economy Army Navy. Names of the Greeks. History of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantium under the Constantinian and Valentinian dynasties. The Western Roman Empire. Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty. Emperor Justinian and general Belisarius. Byzantine Empire under the Heraclian dynasty. Byzantine Empire under the Isaurian dynasty.

Byzantine Empire under the Macedonian dynasty. Byzantine Empire under the Komnenos dynasty and Komnenian restoration. Byzantine civilisation in the 12th century. Decline of the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine Empire under the Angelos dynasty. Siege of Constantinople and Siege of Constantinople Byzantine Empire under the Palaiologos dynasty.

Byzantine—Ottoman Wars and Fall of Constantinople. Byzantine science , Byzantine medicine , and Byzantine law. Byzantine art and Byzantine literature. Byzantine flags and insignia.

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