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Editions showing of Amulius and Numitor, the rape of Ilia and birth of Romulus and Remus, the rescue of the twins by the wolf, the capture of Remus and reunion with Numitor, and alternative versions of the story.
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Although the state was dangerously unsteady, and the city often rent by armed mobs, the optimates rested on their heritage of the Roman tradition. Caesar sprang from the heart of this old nobility, yet he was born into a family which had already allied itself with the populares , i. Hence Caesar's career was associated with the struggle for a new order and, failing opportunity along peaceful avenues, he emerged as a military leader whose triumph at arms worked to advance political change. Yet both parties in this long struggle had checkered histories of violence and corruption.
Mommsen, too, recognized and reported "Caesar the rake, Caesar the conspirator, and Caesar the groundbreaker for later centuries of absolutism. Some moderns follow the optimate view that it was a nefarious role that Caesar played in the fall of the Republic , whose ruling array of institutions had not yet outlived their usefulness. Julius Caesar as villain was an opinion shared, of course, by his knife-wielding assassins, most of whom were also nobility.
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Shared also without shame by that epitome of classical Roman politics and letters, Marcus Tullius Cicero — During the Imperial era the stoic Cato became the symbol of lost republican virtue. Nonetheless, even deadly foes could see the bright genius of Caesar; indeed, many conspitators were his beneficiaries. Moderns may be able to see both sides of the issue, however, as an historian might.
Indeed, there exists a great difference in context between, say, an American, and a German historian of the s, where during citizens had made a rather spontaneous, incoherent effort to move German politics toward a free and unified country: The philosopher Robin Collingwood — developed a nuanced view of history in which each person explores the past in order to create his or her own true understanding of that person's unique cultural inheritance.
Although objectivity remains crucial to the process, each will naturally draw out their own inner truth from the universe of human truth. This fits the stark limitations on each individual's ability to know all sides of history. To a mitigated extent these constraints work also on the historian. It remains genuine knowledge.
How can this be, if my thoughts about Julius Caesar differ from Mommsen's? Must not one of us be wrong? No, because the object differs. My historical [object] is about my own past, not about Mommsen's past. Mommsen and I share in a great many things, and in many respects we share in a common past; but in so far as we are different people and representatives of different cultures and different generations we have different pasts.
This difference is not arbitrary, for I can see—or ought to be able to see—that in his place, apart once more from all questions of error, I should have come to his conclusions. A modern historian of ancient Rome echoes the rough, current consensus of academics about this great and controversial figure, as he concludes his well-regarded biography of Julius Caesar: Placing Mommsen within the galaxy of world historians, subsequent writers have viewed his work from a more technical, professional perspective. The corpus of Mommsen's work may be picked at and poked.
Problems and conundrums emerge. How did Mommsen handle recurrent issues of historiography? In addressing the perplexing reality of the ancient past, as a modern scholar to an educated audience, Mommsen was required to negotiate the common difficulties. How did he fare? Mommsen mentioned the future publication of a fourth volume on the Roman Empire. Due to the immense popularity of his first three, there remained for decades substantial interest and expectation concerning the appearance of this fourth volume.
Yet it did not appear in Mommsen's lifetime. Consequently, this missing fourth volume has caused numerous scholars to speculate about the reasons 'why not'. Concurrently, such musings served to suggest where Theodore Mommsen was to be situated amid the portrait gallery of historians of the 19th century and the modern era.
As to the matter of why "Mommsen failed to continue his history beyond the fall of the republic", Carr wrote: Nothing inspired Mommsen to project this problem back on to the Roman scene; and the history of the empire remained unwritten. Because of Mommsen's expert knowledge across many field of study, he "knows as an eyewitness because While not following Niebuhr's 'divination', Mommsen's manner goes to question of whether one may use discrete and controlled 'intersticial projection', safeguarded by monitoring the results closely after the fact.
Does its use necessarily sacrifice claims to 'objectivity'? Termed intuition based on scholarship, practitioners of such techniques are vulnerable to caustic challenges to the integrity of their science. Acknowledgement of such infirmities may also include an assessment of the skill involved and the quality of the result. Mommsen's work continues to attract a refined and popular readership. In their introduction Saunders and Collins express their admiration for Mommsen and his contribution to the study of ancient Roman history:.
His only rival in any century was Edward Gibbon , whose monumental History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire complements rather than competes with Mommsen's superb description of the Roman republic. One encyclopaedic reference summarizes: He combined the power of minute investigation with a singular faculty for bold generalization Toynbee writes, "Mommsen wrote a great book, which certainly will always be reckoned among the masterpieces of Western historical literature.
Gooch gives us these comments evaluating Mommsen's History: In Professor Theodor Mommsen became the second person to be awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature , which had been inaugurated the preceding year. The commendation called him "the greatest living master of the art of historical writing. The award came nearly fifty years after the first appearance of the work. The award also came during the last year of the author's life — It is the only time thus far that the Nobel Prize for Literature has been presented to a historian per se.
He combined the power of minute investigation with a singular faculty for bold generalization and the capacity for tracing out the effects of thought on political and social life. The British historian G. Since Caesar must be assassinated, Shakespeare must stress those qualities in him which can justify the deed in the eyes of those who commit it and who must, temporarily, have the sympathy of the audience. Consequently, Caesar is presented without reference to the genuine springs of his greatness, emphasis being place upon his arrogance. Cicero saw the murder as a splendid feat of patriotic heroism, and the victim as a public enemy over whose fate all good citizens should rejoice and be glad.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Longmans, Green , 4th impr. Awarded for a particular literary work: Gooch, History and Historians in the Nineteenth Century , at , quoting Mommsen's letter to the novelist Freytag. Although published in three volumes, this part of the History Mommsen organised into five "books". There has been much scholarly discussion about the fate of the 'missing' fourth volume. Demandt, "Introduction" at 1—13 "Why no volume IV? Beck'sche , edited by B. Routledge , edited by Demandt and Wiedemann; "Introduction" by A.
Demandt at 1—35, 9—10, 13— Bentley , J. The Free Press New York Times obituary, "Prof. Mommsen is Dead" at page one November 2, Relatively recently the first volume was translated into Chinese by Li Jianian and published by the Commercial Press, Beijing, The translation later was revised by F. Haverfield, evidently for a edition by Macmillan, London. Routledge , edited with an essay by Thomas Wiedemann, from the German edition by B.
Demandt, introduction by A. Demandt, translated by Clare Krojzl. Nobel Prize Literature List — These social principles were not specific to Rome but held in common by all Latins. XI second half , and — Bk. It included the poorer plebs.
Their relatively weak state ties made them less likely to be as loyal to Roman politicians, but economic dependency encouraged their bonding with the commanding general, their paymaster. Six centuries later the law codification occurred under Justinian r. Warde Fowler, Roman essays and interpretations Oxford Univ.
The broad strokes of Mommsen's long, sometimes intense narrative of the Roman Republic were summarized at the award of the Nobel Prize in a speech given by the secretary of the Swedish Academy. Termed intuition based on scholarship, practitioners of such techniques are vulnerable to caustic challenges to the integrity of their science. In Professor Theodor Mommsen became the second person to be awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature , which had been inaugurated the preceding year. The parties that he knew in Prussia and in other German states were almost equally amorphous. XI second half , and — Bk. Mommsen's work continues to attract a refined and popular readership. Perhaps I have overdone it; but my intention was sound enough.
His life and work" —, at — Mommsen helped show that Latin and other Italic languages were sister languages to ancient Greek , which was fatal to the Pelasgian theory favored by Niebuhr. From coins, standard weights, and the alphabet used by ancient Romans, Mommsen argued that their primary influence was Greek civilization , not Etruscan.
Hirzel —, 3d ed.
Duncker and Humblot Macmillan ; reprint New York at 4—5. Routledge , edited by Thomas Wiedemann from German edition by B. Demandt, essay by T. Wiedemann, introduction by A. Mentioned in particular were: His life and work" —, at , writes that Mommsen went astray in judging Pompey and Caesar, Cicero and Cato. His oath against Rome: Exile in the East: VI mid , Bk. IX end ; III: Cornelia Africana enjoyed literary celebrity in Roman culture.
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