35 morti (Italian Edition)

---

We can not and must not passively expect freedom from the British and the Americans. The Allies did not believe in the guerillas' effectiveness, so General Alexander postponed their attacks against the Nazis. On 16 October the CLN issued its first important political and operational press release, [18] which rejected the calls for reconciliation launched by Republican leaders. CLN Milan asked "the Italian people to fight against the German invaders and against their fascists lackeys". In late November, the Communists established task forces called distaccamenti d'assalto Garibaldi which later would become brigades and divisions [note 1] whose leadership was entrusted to Luigi Longo, under the political direction of Pietro Secchia and Giancarlo Pajetta, Chief of Staff.

The first operational order dated 25 November ordered the partisans to:.

Navigation menu

Shortly after the Armistice, the Italian Communist Party, [21] the Gruppi di Azione Patriottica "Patriotic Action Groups" or simply GAP , established small cells whose main purpose was to unleash urban terror through bomb attacks against fascists, Germans and their supporters. They operated independently in case of arrest or betrayal of individual elements. The success of these attacks led the German and Italian police to believe they were composed of foreign intelligence agents. A public announcement from the PCI in September stated:. To the tyranny of Nazism, that claims to reduce to slavery through violence and terror, we must respond with violence and terror.

The GAP's mission was claimed to be delivering "justice" to Nazi tyranny and terror, with emphasis on the selection of targets: However, partisan memoirs discussed the "elimination of enemies especially heinous", such as torturers, spies and provocateurs. Some orders from branch command partisans insisted on protecting the innocent, instead of providing lists of categories to be hit as individuals deserving of punishment.

Women also participated in the resistance, mainly procuring supplies, clothing and medicines, anti-fascist propaganda, fundraising, maintenance of communications, partisan relays, participated in strikes and demonstrations against fascism. Some women actively participated in the conflict as combatants. The first detachment of guerilla fighters rose up in Piedmont in mid as the Garibaldi Brigade Eusebio Giambone. Partisan forces varied by seasons, German and fascist repression and also by Italian topography, never exceeding , men actively involved, with an important support by residents of occupied territories.

Nonetheless it was an important factor that immobilized a conspicuous part of German forces in Italy, and to keep German communication lines insecure. When the Italian Resistance movement began following the armistice, with various Italian soldiers of disbanded units and many young people not willing to be conscripted into the fascist forces, Mussolini's Italian Social Republic RSI also began putting together an army.

No customer reviews

This was formed with what was left of the previous Regio Esercito and Regia Marina corps, fascist volunteers and drafted personnel. The fascist republic fought against the partisans to keep control of the territory.

The Fascists claimed their armed forces numbered , men and women. This is disputed and sources indicated that there were no more than , These formations, often including criminals, [26] adopted brutal methods during counterinsurgency operations, repression and retaliation.

Pan dei Morti (Bread of the Dead)

Among the first to form was the banda of the Federal Guido Bardi and William Pollastrini in Rome, whose methods shocked even the Germans. The so-called Koch Band led by Pietro Koch , then under the protection of General Kurt Maltzer, the Rome region military commander, [28] distinguished themselves with violent methods against anti-fascist partisans.

After the fall of Rome, Koch moved to Milan. He gained the confidence of Interior Minister Guido Buffarini Guidi and continued his repressive activity in various Republican police forces. Considering him dangerous to the public, in November , the Federal i. Colombo remained at his post, despite complaints and inquiries. The victims were fifteen anti-fascist rebels, killed in retaliation for an assault against a German truck. Following the massacre, the mayor and chief of the Province of Milan, Piero Parini, resigned in an attempt to strengthen the cohesion of moderate forces, who were undermined by the heavy German repression and various militias of Social Republic.

They controlled the repression and coordinated anti-partisan actions of the regular troops, the GNR, the Black Brigades and various semi-official police, together with the Germans, who made the reprisals. The Republican Army was an operational tool also thanks to the Graziani call-up for conscription that impressed several thousand Italians. Graziani were only nominally involved in the armed forces under the apolitical CSR, by the armed forces supreme command.

At first, the new government supported the Axis. Demonstrations celebrating the change were violently repressed. Italy surrendered to the Allies on September 8. Victor left Rome with his Cabinet, leaving the Army without orders. This was made possible by the German occupation of the Italian peninsula via Operation Achse , planned and led by Erwin Rommel. This period featured military and terrorist episodes along with political rivalries among the antifascists. After the armistice with Italy , British forces had two perspectives: Fascist units disputed for territory with partisan units, often sustained by German forces.

Fascists predominated in cities and plain zones, supported by heavy arms, while small partisan units predominant in mountainous areas with better cover, where large formations could not maneuver effectively. Many violent episodes followed, sometimes pitting fascists against fascists and partisans against partisans. Communist partisans of the division Natisone the SAP brigade 13 martiri di Feletto , attached to the Yugoslavian XI Corpus by orders of Togliatti , [37] after reaching the command of one of the many Osoppo Brigades, massacred 20 partisans and a woman, claiming that they were German spies.

The forces of the Italian Social Republic struggled to keep the insurgency under wraps, resulting in a heavy toll on the German occupation forces stationed to buttress them. Defeats at the hands of Anglo-American forces left the Germans, and by extension the Italian fascists, increasingly weaker in Italy, until by April their front was collapsing and rear lines were very lightly defended.

The Italian partisans took advantage of this with a wide-scale uprising in late April, attacking the retreating Germans and RSI forces.

Contribution of Radiocarbon Dating to the Chronology of Eneolithic in Campania (Italy)

On April 26 Genoa fell, with 14, Italian partisans forcing the city's surrender and taking 6, German soldiers as prisoners. Mussolini attempted to withdraw to the mountains on April 27, but was caught by the partisans and killed. Following the civil war, many soldiers, executives and sympathizers of the fascist Repubblica Sociale were subjected to show trials and executed.

The forest of the suicides resembles a dense thicket of briar, the only 'vegetation' found in hell after the green meadow of Limbo Inf. Dante's simile, which sounds like the sounds it describes, reduces Pier's natural dignity by giving him so distorted a voice. Virgil's apology to Pier for encouraging Dante to pluck a piece of him now clearly evokes the text of the Aeneid , thus adding a dimension to the words he had uttered at Inferno XIII.

Virgil's invitation to Pier to speak so that Dante may 'revive his fame' in the world above has a positive result. As we move down through hell, we will find that some sinners look upon their 'interview' with this 'reporter' a wonderful opportunity to attempt to clear their names, while others shun any 'publicity' at all.

The beginning of Pier's speech is an Italian version of Pier's noted 'chancery style' of Latin oratory turned to document-writing. Pier was known not only for his Latin writings on behalf of Frederick's exercise of his imperial power, but for his vernacular poems, which are similarly florid. His speech to Dante, in its entirety, forms an Italian version of a classical oration, with its parts measured as follows: For a more detailed consideration of the rhetorical construction of the speech see David C. The speaker identifies himself, if by circumlocution, as Pier della Vigna or 'delle Vigne': He was made judge and protonotary, and for more than twenty years he was the trusted minister and confidant of the Emperor.

Clarendon, ].

Quaderni di cultura ghibellina in Italia Pisa: Edizioni ETS, , pp. Further information about the emperor Frederick II may be found in the note to Inf. Holding the keys to the emperor's heart, the 'promised land' of any self-seeking courtier, this Peter is a parodic version of St.

morte - Wiktionary

Peter, who, in the Christian tradition, holds the keys one for mercy, one for judgment that unlock or lock the Kingdom of Heaven. For the original Biblical image of the two keys see Isaiah This 'slut' is commonly recognized as envy, the sin of hoping that one's happy neighbor will be made unhappy. Pier is trying to establish his innocence of the charges that he betrayed his lord by stealing from his treasury. We now know that he was in fact guilty of that fault; however, it is far from clear that Dante knew what we know.

University of Toronto Press, ], pp. For a reading of these climactic words of Pier's oration, his oath, sworn on 'this tree's new-sprung roots,' that he did not break faith with Frederick, see the endnote to this canto.

Pier della Vigna, Nicola della Rocca e Dante: Here the word nove , would seem most naturally to refer to the new 'roots' of his 'body,' replacing those that God and nature had given him for his natural life. How are we meant to respond to Pier, an unquestionably imposing figure? These virtues or passions that redeem, even in hell, a great sin are among the most noble and suggestive inventions of the Comedy. However, it is probably better to see that, in the case of Pier as well as in that of the others mentioned by Momigliano , the sinner speaks of himself in such a way as to condemn himself in his own words, at least if we learn to read him from the ironic angle of vision that the split between consciousness of the slowly-evolving protagonist and the knowledgeable poet surely seems to call for.

It was centuries ago that a reader first thought of Judas when he read of Pier. Jerome's comment on Psalm 8: The denial of Christ's authority was much a part of the behaviors of the emperor whom he served, Frederick II, revealed as punished for his heresy a few cantos earlier Inf. It is difficult to read his words in any other way: And thus, in imitation of Judas, he will have his body hanging on a tree for eternity.

Pier, as many have noted, has important attributes in common with Dante. Both were political figures who ended up losing the goals of their highly energized activity; both were poets. Yet it seems clear that, for all the fellow-feeling that Dante must have felt for the ruined chancellor, he is more interested in the crucial errors he made in directing his political life to the sharing and taking of power and to that alone.

For Dante, the political life can only be lived justly under the sign of the true 'emperor,' God. The protagonist, like many readers, has been won over by Pier's oratory. As was the case in his meeting with Farinata and Cavalcante in Inferno X, he began in fear, then turned to pity. Neither is an attitude recommended by the moral setting of the poem that contains this currently piteous protagonist. Again, see the endnote to this canto. Responding to the first of Virgil's two questions on Dante's behalf the nature of the punishment accorded the suicides , Pier describes the process by which a suicidal soul is turned, not into an airy resemblance of its former human self, but into a thing, a thornbush tortured by Harpies the despair that led it to self-destruction in the first place.

The commentary of Durling and Martinez ad loc. As for the image of the 'seed' of the suicide's soul taking root where it is flung down in this 'forest,' a student at Princeton, Kyle Corcoran '03, has recently suggested that there is a relationship here, by contraries, to the parable of the sower in Luke's gospel 8: The second of Virgil's questions regarded the eventual disposition of the incarcerated soul. It will be reincarnated after the Last Judgment, and then hang upon the bush it is contained by now. This self-contained unit of twenty-seven verses is devoted to a second class of those violent against themselves.

These wastrels were 'prodigal' in so thoroughly intentional a way that they did not casually toss away their possessions, but willfully destroyed them in a sort of 'material suicide. Paget Toynbee describes the two sinners found here as follows: He took part in an expedition of the Florentines and Sienese against Arezzo in , which ended in the Sienese force falling into an ambush and being cut to pieces by the Aretines under Buonconte da Montefeltro at Lano, being ruined and desperate, chose to fight and be killed, rather than run away and make his escape; hence the allusion of Jacomo in the text Jacomo [and not Dante's 'Jacopo'] della Cappella di sant' Andrea of Padua, the son of Odorico Fontana da Monselice and Speronella Delesmanini, a very wealthy lady, whose fortune Jacomo inherited, and squandered in the most senseless acts of prodigality.

He is supposed to have been put to death by order of Ezzolino da Romano [see Inf.

• Sherlock Holmes Buch der Fälle (German Edition)
• Life Is a Game You Play: Mastering Office/Social Politics
• To Fly With The Angels
• Gods Children and Monkeys Uncles:Evolution and Creationism for Common Folk
• Heaven Sent: A Legacy of Love from Human, to Angel, to Canine
• Argo Navis (German Edition)
• Guano and the Opening of the Pacific World: A Global Ecological History (Studies in Environment and History)