Antisemitismus im Spielfilm des Nationalsozialismus (German Edition)

Benz antisemitismus v1 en 2011

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Write a review Rate this item: Preview this item Preview this item. The "unbelievers" were to be made recognizable by wearing distinctive garments yellow badge, Jewish cap and live separated from Christians.

This was the beginning of the ghettoization in the cities and the regulation of limited participation by Jews in public life through a host of discriminating rules. The credit system changed in the 13 th century. The Christian restrictions on interest were relaxed, and so Jews were now rivals in the financial business; only those customers borrowed money from them who were unable to obtain credit elsewhere.

The image of the Jewish usurer was reinforced as an anti-Jewish stereotype, and the Jewish minorities in the cities, now generally in no position to fulfill their hitherto economic role, were demonized collectively and, like other marginal groups in society, exposed to the continuous threat of persecution. Following the example set by territorial lords England , France , Spain , beginning in the mid th century Jews were expelled from towns and cities, with a variety of reasons given and for the most part instigated by the local townsfolk.

Religious, social and economic grievances formed a web of animosities against Jews, who with the exception of Prague and Frankfurt am Main had left the urban centers of Central Europe by the end of the Middle Ages. They scratched out a meager existence in villages as petty traders peddlers, junk sellers.

With the traditional stereotypes of usurers, anti-Christians, well-poisoners and ritual murderers arising from Christian roots, complemented by religious customs mysterious in the eyes of Christians and the alleged character qualities derived from them, the Jews, members of a backward minority, were stigmatized without any culpability on their part similar to heretics, sorcerers, witches , and they seemed not only to be deserving of loathing and disgust, but also the perfect object for missionary zeal. If, as was the rule, they resisted the lure of Christian baptism, they aroused the ire of the Christians all the more, as the example of Martin Luther shows, whose furious anti-Jewish sermons such as "On the Jews and Their Lies" from mirrors frustrated proselyte zeal.

In the early Modern period Jewish missions replaced the forced baptisms of the Middle Ages which were inadmissible according to canonical law , and along with them the devastating consequences, visible in Luther's reaction, whenever this pious intent came to nothing. In the Middle Ages the legal status of Jews was defined as servi camerae regis "servants of the royal chamber" — first mentioned in documents in —, meaning that Jews were obliged to pay taxes but in return enjoyed a minimum of protection from persecution.

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With the emergence of territorial lordship the law passed into the hands of the princes. In the Modern period, [7 ] those Jews of interest to the territorial lords were privileged as "protected Jews", i.

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Jewish entrepreneurs frequently offered their services to princes in the period of absolutism, financing their costly ventures as the 'court Jew'. The Enlightenment paved the way for emancipation, influenced by the idea of tolerance articulated by Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Moses Mendelssohn. The emancipation of the Jews, i. As a counter to the legal equality of Jews, violence resembling the pogroms of the Middle Ages broke out in Flamed by social crises, but clearly a rejection of integration by the minority society, aggressive altercations with the Jewish minority took place.

Hostility towards Jews was though a form of social protest where pent-up aggressions were shifted and redirected against Jews. Hostility towards Jews gained a new dimension in the 19 th century in the form of a modern anti-Semitism which exploited racist and Social Darwinist arguments, and moreover presented itself as the result of well-founded scientific knowledge. Amongst its fathers was Arthur Count de Gobineau with his voluminous An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races published between and in four volumes , which although not explicitly directed against Jews, was instrumentalized as the cornerstone of a "racial theory" that seemed to lay down scientific foundations for anti-Semitism.

Anti-Semitic theoreticians agreed in their claims that every "racial characteristic" of the Jews was negative, and the feature distinguishing it from the older anti-Judaism was the conviction that "racial characteristics" were, unlike religious beliefs, immutable. In the discussion of the "Jewish question" the parasite metaphoric played an ever increasing role, irrespective of the fact that the anti-emancipatory hostility towards Jews was also — and above all — a movement against the modernization of society and political liberalism.

The eminent historian had spoken out against a feared mass emigration of Eastern European Jews and accused German Jews of lacking the will to assimilate. The Berlin court chaplain Adolf Stoecker , who, as the founder of a "Christian Socialist Workers' Party", had sought to convince workers and artisans of the advantages of the existing state order since , hoping to lead them away from social democracy, exploited "the Jewish question" for his own purposes.

He held anti-Jewish speeches, playing on the anti-Semitic expectations of his audience, drawing on the economic and social desires and fears of the petit-bourgeoisie plagued by worries and, by blaming "the Jews", offered explanations for and solutions to their problems. The idea to reconcile the masses of workers with the throne and altar through the clerical, anti-Jewish agitation proved to be of little appeal; at the same time however, this politicization of Christianity with anti-Semitic slogans left its mark on the Protestant Church into the 20 th century.

Houston Stewart Chamberlain , a private scholar greatly interested in the natural sciences, born in England and a naturalized German, prevented by psychosocial syndromes to pursue an academic or military career, became famous thanks to his historico-cultural work from , Die Grundlagen des Jahrhunderts ; rejected by academic scholars, this bulky conglomerate of Germanic-centric ideas fascinated the educated bourgeoisie and made a striking impression on Kaiser Wilhelm II and later Adolf Hitler. No less ominous was the influence of Chamberlain's father-in-law who he revered and admired, Richard Wagner , whose reputation as a composer, music dramatist and writer transported his anti-Semitic convictions, expressed for instance in Wagner's striking and irrational essay "Das Judentum in der Musik" Overall, organized anti-Semitism was unable to achieve any political influence in the German Empire; in terms of its contribution to the cultural mood of the time however, the importance of the new anti-Semitism cannot be underestimated.

The agitation against Jews and its public propagation in journalism, the catchphrases and postulates introduced into the public debate were seeds which only needed to wait for more favorable conditions to come to fruition. Anti-Semitism in Wilhelmian Germany was of course not some singular phenomenon, nor was it a German characteristic. In Austria, anti-Semitism emerged as a political movement in the s from similar social and economical circumstances, initially from the social periphery, the petit-bourgeoisie. Anti-Semites found their first organizational basis in artisan cooperatives and guilds.

The deputy Karl Lueger was the charismatic integrative figure of the Christian Social Party, which, similar to Stoecker in Berlin, exploited animosity towards Jews by merging it with an anti-liberal and anti-socialist politics. Unlike Stoecker and cohorts in the German Reich, the demagogy succeeded. After his supporters had gained the majority in the Vienna local council in , Lueger was appointed mayor in The merits of his local politics have only served to marginalize the fact that they would not have been possible in the first place without the manipulative anti-Semitism galvanizing the Christian-Social base by appealing to the emotions.

In France, which had granted its small Jewish minority 80, people, or 0. While Sephardic Jews in southern France encountered hardly any integration problems, the Ashkenazi Jews in the northeast faced animosity on a number of fronts, partly stemming from Christian-Catholic roots, partly from the form of racism formulated by de Gobineau and propagated by Edouard Drumont in La France Juive from , and partly initiated by the socialists a feature specific to France.

Anti-Semitism was a factor integrating the diverse forces of nationalist and clerical opposition towards the Third Republic, perceived as a modern capitalist, secularized state. French anti-Semitism, incomparably more aggressive than its German manifestation, which was radical in its rhetoric, culminated in the Dreyfus Affair, which from held the French public in suspense for years.

Charged with treason, the Jewish army captain Dreyfus was sentenced to deportation on the basis of falsified evidence in a dubious trial. Following the intervention of intellectuals most famously Emile Zola with his open letter "J'accuse" in , the proceedings led to the gravest constitutional crisis of the Third Republic, which ended with a Republican victory over the clergy, nationalists and anti-Semites.

Anti-Semitism as an anti-modern political movement suffered a significant defeat in France, without however becoming completely irrelevant. Russia was synonymous for virulent and violent anti-Semitism at the end of the 19 th century. Jews living in the rayon settlement in the west of the country were haunted regularly by pogroms, suffered great poverty and exposed to uncertainty as to their legal rights. Persecution intensified following the murder of Tsar Alexander II Without the religious and — typical for Germany and France — racist and nationalist components, anti-Semitism was an instrument of anti-modern Russian politics.

Despite the fact that German Jewry shared the enthusiasm for war sweeping the country in the summer of and that the number of Jewish volunteers was large — in relation to the Jewish proportion of the population — the rumor spread that Jews were "shirking". The second anti-Semitic stereotype commonly accepted was the conviction that Jews, the "born profiteers and speculators", were gaining untold riches, exploiting the adversity the fatherland was facing.

As anti-Jewish petitions and denunciations gained in frequency from the end of , the Prussian Minister of War ordered in October a statistical count on the service of Jews in the war. If this directive to conduct a "Jew count" was in itself an anti-Semitic outrage, the fact that the results remained unpublished made the affair a complete scandal.

If, as claimed, the "Jew count" was supposed to officially prove how unfounded the complaints were, at the same time it sanctioned, because the result was kept secret, anti-Semitic resentments which had a long-lasting impact, which the Nazi Party and other rightwing parties were able to exploit for the duration of the Weimar Republic. Although the years between the First World War and the end of the Weimar Republic marked the highpoint of their cultural assimilation for German Jews, at the same time it was also the onset of social dissimilation.

Anti-Semitic propaganda, which sought to lay the blame for the ignominious consequences of war defeat, the fears of social decline held by the petit-bourgeoisie and wounded German national pride turned "the Jews" into the culpable party. The result of this anti-Semitic agitation was the murder of Foreign Minister Rathenau in and the attempts to assassinate other democratic politicians of Jewish origin.

Anti-Semitism was of constitutive importance for National Socialism. Without undertaking any innovative efforts of their own, Hitler and the ideologues of the Nazi Party simply adopted the racial constructs and postulates of the hostile anti-Jewish sentiment from the 19 th century.

The manifesto of the Nazi Party from set out plans to revoke emancipation by reserving citizenship and positions of public office for non-Jews as well as placing a ban on immigration. Anti-Semitism was one of the central tenets in Hitler's programmatic Mein Kampf and was propagated in demagogic fervor at rallies as the remedy to all evils. The traditional stereotypes like the alleged Jewish striving for world dominion, the disproportionately large influence exerted by "Jews" in the media, culture, academia, etc, were the themes of this propaganda, "explained" by the constructs of 19 th -century racial anti-Semitism.

The "Protocols of the Elders of Zion" imported from Russia, the basis for the conspiracy theory explaining all that happened in the world, was also integral to this conglomerate, cited by Hitler, commented on by chief ideologue Alfred Rosenberg and circulated by the Nazi Party's own publishing operation.

Anti-Semitism became a policy objective of the state upon the Nazi Party assuming power in Following initial public excesses, for instance the boycott campaign of spring — "justified" by allegations that "Jews had declared war" on the German people — this policy was pursued through legal means. With the "Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service" from April , Jews were not only removed from public service but also socially outcast by the "Aryan paragraphs". Jewish lawyers were also prohibited from practicing in April , while the "Editor Law" of October denied Jewish journalists employment, Jewish cattle dealers were no longer allowed to work, and doctors first lost their authorization then their license.

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The "Nuremberg Laws" of September marked the complete retraction of emancipation: Jews were no longer citizens of the German Reich but only nationals without political rights "Reich Citizenship Law". The "Blood Protection Law" forbid marriage with non-Jews and made sexual contact between Jews and "Aryans" a punishable offence, namely as an act of "racial defilement".

Propaganda complemented this discrimination by the means of the legal system. The defaming propaganda show was the inspiration and source for Fritz Hippler's film of the same name, which was released in cinemas in Joseph Goebbels, chief of the Reich Propaganda Ministry, was not the only leading Nazi to spread hostile caricatures of Jews which paved the way to organized mass murder.

The November pogroms in mark the transition from exclusion to persecution.

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Through "Aryanization" Jews were removed from business and the economy, their public life as a minority came to a standstill. The year brought restrictions of freedom of movement and with the "Jew houses" a form of ghettoization. The pressure exerted to coerce Jews into migrating, forced ahead in November with the imprisonment of almost 30, Jews in the concentration camps of Dachau, Buchenwald and Sachsenhausen, increased. New torments and cruelties were introduced once the war broke out evening curfew, reduction of food supplies, prohibition to use cars, telephones, etc.

The last phase of anti-Semitism put into practice began in the summer of After the invasion of the Soviet Union, SS paramilitary death squads — the "Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD" — systematically murdered the Jewish population. The ban placed on Jewish migration and the wearing of the "Jewish badge" introduced in September prepared the way for the deportations to the ghettos and death camps in the East. When in January the Wannsee Conference was held, presided over by Reinhard Heydrich, the organized murder of Jews by way of mass executions was long in full swing, above all in the Baltic, Byelorussia and Ukraine.

In the concentration camps of Auschwitz from fall and Majdanek fall Jews were murdered in gas chambers. An extermination camp was set up on Polish soil in Chelmno "Warthegau" in the fall of The victims were suffocated in "gas trucks" without staying in the camp.

In the three extermination camps run by the "Aktion Reinhardt", Belzec November , Sobibor spring and Treblinka June , a total of 1. The ideology of anti-Semitism culminated in the Holocaust with the genocide of six million Jews. Anti-Semitism simply did not disappear with the collapse of the Nazi regime. Besides the traditional manifestations Christian anti-Judaism and racial anti-Semitism , "secondary anti-Semitism" emerged as a reflex to the Holocaust, born out of feelings of guilt and shame, which, to name one example, focused on restitution payments.

Increasingly relevant are those resentments expressed in the guise of anti-Zionism, which ostensibly targets the state of Israel, whose right of existence is disputed, but actually focuses on Jews collectively. The interdisciplinary character of research into anti-Semitism not only determines the pluralism of methods but also the host of explanatory models.

Historical interpretations, going back to the hostility towards Jews in ancient times, [21 ] function as forerunners in many respects. Historical studies depict "modern anti-Semitism" in the 19 th century as a reflex-like reaction to a crisis of modernization, [22 ] one in which a variety of influences, traditions and patterns merge in the effort to respond to processes of social restructuring and the perceived decay of the values of civil society and its legitimacy.

Nation and nationalism furnish an explanatory model for hostility towards Jews; [23 ] political positioning is also important and can result in characteristic expressions of anti-Semitism.

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