Slhoka T04 : Les Arches de Sang (French Edition)

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Learn more about Amazon Prime. Please try your request again later. Are you an author? Help us improve our Author Pages by updating your bibliography and submitting a new or current image and biography. Learn more at Author Central. All Formats Kindle Edition Sort by: Popularity Popularity Featured Price: Low to High Price: High to Low Avg. Available for download now. Les arches de sang: Thus a Jataka" tells us how the people of Varanasi were forced to flock to the deer-forest to the detriment of their own business by the king who was passionately fond of hunting.

And as they gather in all the diverse kinds of produce they shall fill the royal garners to overflowing not giving so much as a glance at their own empty barns at home. In the Smritis, referred to above, also no mention of the agriculturists is to be found in the list of persons liable to be the subject to forced labour.

Economic History of the Deccan chariotmakers, barbers, and potters by the elders, excludes the agriculturists from rendering forced labour. If the latter is indicated then the Vaisjas were placed in a privileged position. Besides the above, tradesmen not engaged in any kind of work are required to be charged with tax in cash. Kautilya, however, exempts from the payment of benevolence those who live in tracts of middle or low quality ; those who help in the construction of fortifications, gardens, buildings, roads for traffic, colonisation of waste lands, exploitation of mines and formation of forest ; those who live on the border of the kingdom or who have not enough subsistence ; the forest tribes as well as Brfihmanas learned in the Vedas.

It is rather surprising to note that this important source of state income is not mentioned in any inscription of the Deccan during the period under review. Here we evidently find an allusion to the duly levied on articles of merchandise. PSnini in one of his siitras V,1. According to this interpretation, Sulka is a general designation for tax. But in the standard lexicons Sulka refers to ghanadideya, i. In Pali, sunka Skt. Sulka implies tools, duties and customs. In the Perum-pm-arriippadai, 81, we are told that tolls were collected at the frontier of every kingdom and on the trunk-roads used by caravans.

Tliat was a tax levied on merchants is evident from the statement of Narada who advises Yudhisthira to collect through his officers the customary stdka from the merchants who come from distant places with the object of making profit. The duty on conch-shells, diamonds, jewels, pearls, coral and neck- laces, however, was fixed after an assessment made by expertb acquainted with the lime required for production as well as the cost and finish of such things.

Thus the trader made a profit, after paying the duty on ntcrchandisc. Those who gave false declaration about merchandise and whose merchandise bore either no seal or a counterfeit seal were liable to fines. Heavy fine was prescribed for people who indulged in lax evasion and smuggling. The Smtiti writers also deprecate the smugglers in no uncertain terms. The king is also given the right to confiscate the whole property of a trader who exports goods of which the king has a monopoly or the export of which is forbidden.

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In the Bandora plates also we find that the donee was exempted from panga. The distinction between pmige- iappu and panga-suika is not clear. Sircar thinks that panga-sulka may be the same as paiiga explained above and panga-tappu may indicate interest or fine on arrears of padgo. The expression sarva-pafiga-parihrita exempted from all the porigos used in some cases would suggest that pariga often indicated a levy in genera! Along with panga, utkofa is mentioned in the Hitnahebbagiiu plates as a levy. Tt is these nidhana- kalasas whose discovery from time to time has enlivened the annals of Indian numismatics.

On the other hand, the discoverer gets nothing when the treasure trove is valued beyond Taking possession of a treasure trove on false claim was considered a crime. X, 43 ; Manu, VlII. It is interesting to note that the iSflWflrof- cbchakaha,- a Jaina religious romance written by Haribhadra in the second half of the 9th century A.

In the Hirahadagalli plates, we meet with the fiscal term, komjala, which is mentioned along with kara and vetthi. In that case komjala may be taken in the sense of a tax on fermentation. The plates bestow upon the donees the royal right to enjoy apiitrika-vetil.

This is sometimes mentioned as aputra, aputrika, aputraka, apiitvaka- dliana and aputrika-dliana. As regards property belonging 1 IV. Vishnu ,36 says that the entire property of the person, who possesses niditi without informing the king, will be confiscated. Baudhayaita' says that the king should protect it for himself. If, however, no heir would appear even after three years, the king would take the property, an exception being made in favour of the Brahamanas, whose property goes to fellow Bralimanas.

The Jaina Uttard- dhyayanasdtra tells the story of a king who was about to confiscate the property of his purohUa when the latter renounced the world with his wife and sons and how the queen dissuaded her husband from this act. Revenue System 77 confiscating the property of persons dying without male heirs. The Mayidavolu grant exempts the donee from the supply of kiira-cholaka-vinasi-khafva-samvasa. The word vinasi has not yet been properly interpreted. In their opinion the obligation to provide servants for touring officers is perhaps meant by this term.

The obligation of supplying grass from the pastures and fuel is also recorded in other inscriptions. Besides the articles already specified, the Mayidavolu inscription refers to the royal right to collect haritaka myrobalan , sdka vegetables , pushpa flowers , diidlia milk and dadhi curd. Many of these objects are also listed in the 1 GOS ed. The last two, viz. In the VSkataka inscriptions we sometimes read that the land granted was made a-charasnonachavyiangora, or a-chammahgd- laka. As wc have seen in the previous chapter, there is also dilTerence of opinion with regard to tlie interpretation of the term charSsnna.

Fleet takes chdrasana to mean pasturage. The compound in the Vak3iaka records thus stems to refer to the free passage, free camping and free suppiy of hide-seats and charcoal usually offered by the villagers to the touring royal officers. They were appointed to arrest robbers and persons guilty of high treason. Bana tells us that these officers were hated by the country people on account of their cruelty and greed. In another place, he writes that the poor people grumbled against the cruelty and ill-treatment received at their hands.

Sircar thinks that their duty consisted of collecting royal dues and apprehending thieves and robbers. Vincti is only used m a moral sense. Fleet's Gupta Inscriptions, p. Belonging to this category of exemption is a-bliada-pavesa- also mentioned simply as apavesa. In connection with this type of exemptions wc may refer to anmosha. V'll, Karic Cave Ins. See also Fleet, ClI, Vol. VIII, Nasik ins, nos. The object of this interpretation would thus be to deny to the representatives of the king the right of digging pits for extracting salt.

In the opinion of Ghoshal, it probably refers to the exemption of the donee from fines for extracting salt which was regarded as a royal monopoly. But it is not clear how odotta-khadaka can refer to the exemption of the donee from salt-tax. In ancient India, salt, like other mineral products, was a royal monopoly. This parihara implies that the villagers had to supply bullocks for the bullock-carts used by royal officers when the latter went on tour through the country for rent collection and other official work.

Sometimes, a small tax, called praydiia-dattda was levied for the purpose. But the use of the term go in addition to balivarda in Vakataka grants rather indicates that the village was exempted from the obligation of giving to the state the first calf — male or female — of every cow in the village. A-vaba is another term of the nature of a-paranipard-balivarda grahana which occurs in some inscriptions. In the inscriptions of the Vakatakas occur some curious exemptions and privileges. One of these viz. Here the reference is apparently to free labour which the subjects were obliged to render to the state.

A third is sa-karaiah sa-pancMsatakah? The term may refer either to some agricultural cess, or to a marriage-tax of the kind spoken of in. It is intelligible that, mining operation being a royal monopoly, the king empowered the donee to extract gold in the donated area, but the right to clothes covering the corpses is rather curious and remains to be explained. Kautilya prescribes imposition of dauda or fine on persons found guilty in some civil and criminal cases.

We have already referred to the amount of fine to be imposed upon tax-evaders, smugglers, etc. Kautilya says that the gopa should keep an account of the exact number of cultivators, cowherds, merchants, artisans, labourers, slaves, and biped and quadruped animals, fixing at the same time the amount of cash, free labour, toll, and danda that can be collected from each house of the village concerned.

It thus appears that danda is a kind of levy imposed upon the villagers like kara, rishji, sulka and hiranya. Here vasati-danda and prayana-danda refer either to the obligation of rendering free service to and providing dwelling houses for the royal officers respectively or to a levy for the same. We do not 1 El, Vol. In the opinion of B. He then tries to explain dosdparadba in the following way: Indian Epigraphical Glossary, s.

Le Sepal, Vol HI, pp. Revenue System 87 adultery, murder, complicity and so forth. Ghoshal, therefore, thinks that the term dasapradha, as used in the land grants, refers to the right of the donee to be exempted at least in part from the ordinary penalties for the commission of some traditional offences by the villagers.

Ghoshal himself admits that the phrase stands for a kind of income accruing to the king from the villages. Why, therefore, should we not believe that like bhaga, ball, etc. In fact, we have no reason to discard the orthodox view with regard to sadasaparadha first advanced by Fleet. Thus, justice was one of the recognised sources of revenue and, as such, could be alienated to favourite grantees.

In the Bennur grant- of Krishpavarman II, the donee is given the right to enjoy raja-bhaga-dasabandha. The term dasabandha has been variously interpreted. But Kulluka commenting on Mamt. When the canals and tanks were repaired by the state the dasabandha was to be paid to the royal treasury.

It was also collected for keeping the source of water-supply in good repair. The expression choravarja which stands for the exemption may be compared with its equivalents chaurararja, clioradrohakavarja and cAora- dandaja ofjiiher inscriptions. The editor of the grant reads it in compound with the succeeding word praihihSra and explains rajjupratihdra as a tax payable by the rope-jugglers or dancers.

But in the ArthasQstra rajju, as distinguished from chorarajju, is used as a fiscal term apparently in the sense of a tax payable by the viUagcrs. Unchaimna along with other local dues, viz. But as we have seen above juaptmamm is sometimes mentioned in the Chalukya inscriptions as a local tax, the nature of which is still unexplained. It may be assumed that sarva-jdtakam actually referred to the grain-share to be given by the inhabitants of the gift land to the king or any authorised person.

This would mean that ordinarily a person was not allowed to be benefited from the water-resources which were state monopolies. Kautilya' refers o a lax called vdakabhaga which a subject was obliged to pay to the state for using the water-resources. It may not be impro- bable that sa-pamyam in the present grant implies that the donee was given the right lo enjoy the water-sources without paying udakabhaga to the stale. A SatavShana inscription refers to the grant of a village together with kara and uikara.

The meaning of pfdd is vague though in the present grant it may refer to forced labour, benevolences and obligation to supply food, lodging and other necessaries to the touring officers. While Bniia evidently refers to duties on articles of merchandise, parUfitta has been interpreted doubtfully as income accruing?

He is further inclined to take rajju in the sense of rajjtdea'.

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But in view of the fact that many of the terms arc met with here for the first time, an attempt to inter- pret them is bound to remain doubtful unless these are confirm- ed by other sources. In any case it is amply clear that the existing tax-structure, as suggested by the Vilavatti grant, cover- ed all classes of people from barbers to barbarians. Megasthenes noted with wonder that the country pro- duced fruits and grains twice a year. The productivity of the soil was largely dependent on the regularity of rainfall.

May the crop be sweet to us; may the skies, the rains, the air be sweet and may the Lord of the Field for us be full of sweetness, and may we follow him uninjured. It is agriculture alone that can save him from the abject state of begging. Ray, Ancient Indian Life, pp. As we have seen before, the classical writers are unanimous in their view that the Indians gathered two harvests annually.

When the statements of the classical writers are primarily with reference to the Punjab valley and the Ganges doab, there is at least one Inscription to suggest that harvesting twice a year was also current in some parts of the Deccan. Thus an inscription of the Gahga king MSdhavavatman records the grant of certain lands which were growing two crops in the year, one in autumn and the other in summer. As to tillage, PaiSSara gives an illuminating account: No spot of the field should remain untiiled.

Ploughing once only is something but twice is better, and ploughing five times gives the best result. The peculiar physical features of the Deccan leading to a variety of climate and soil resulted in evolving various kinds of agricultural products. In the inscriptions as well as in literature, we have reference to a large number of crops that were grown in the region.

It was produced so abundantly that rice was exported from the ancient sea-port of Barygaza. Rice, according to Aristobulus, stands in water, and is sown in beds. The plant is four cubits in height, has many cars, and yields a large produce. The time of its in- gathering is about the Pleiades, and it is husked in the same way as barley.

Mcgillos says that rice is sown before the rains, and that it docs not require to be irrigated and transplanted as it is supplied with abundance of water. It appears from the Brihaspatisamhitd that saU was grown at first in a nursery bed and then was transplanted in the field. He says that vrlhi, ripens in the rainy season while sail matures in winter. The difference between sdli and vrlhi is not only in their time of harvesting, but also in their qualities..

According 1 lA, Vol. Tile latter, though sweet, is less digestible than the former, and like millet which is insipid, consumed by the poor. It was grown in Aparanta in a single month and was the food of servants and slaves. The quality of wheat produced in the Deccan attracted the attention of the Eutopean traveUeTs. It came from Persia or from Nfesopotamia through Persia.

Its Sanskrit name, godhuma, is identical with the Persian gondum. The word varaka could be easily changed into varuka and then into mdrud. It is essentially a food-crop of Southern India. The name ragi does not occur in ancient Sanskrit. It is found in the Rdjanighantu, composed later than A.

It is also known in later Sanskrit as kafigu, kangurii. Haridas Siddhantabagis Bhattacharya, p. Cardamom is indigenous to West and South India, growing. That cotton was grown there from very early times is indicated by the AnhaiSstro. The author of the Pcriplus- refers to the export of cotton, raw and manufactured, to the Greek world from Ariacc and Barj'gaza. Arrian further says that the cotton of India is whiter and brighter than that of any other country.

These were named iimdikcru samudrdnta, kdrpusi and vadara. Besides these, there was the wild species named hharadvuji. It is now impossible to identify the five species ; though all belonged to the genus of gossypuim, there have been changes in the cultivated forms so that the number of recognisable varieties has become large. The fruit of umdikert had a sharp point at the apex. Is there any relation between the Tupdikera people and the tundikerJ variety of cotton? The species which was culti- vated in the western part of India near the sea was known as samudrantd. TIic fruit of vadara was globose like that or zizyiphus kola fruit.

KarpasT was the name of the common species and also denoted all the others. The juice was then boiled to produce molasses. As the word gu[a is mentioned along with hpa. It seems that cither the manufacture of sugar was a royal monopoly or the state collected a revenue on its manufacture. The cultivation of haridra turmeric was also known. It was used not only for cooking purposes but also as cosmetic. Nearchus quoted by Strabo, XV, I, Kalidasa" states that, in the course of his digvijaya, Raghu reached the country of Kalihga where his brave soldiers drank the sweet juice of coconut.

Cosmas also refers to the large Indian nuts. The traveller lived on the nourishing pulp inside the green nut and its deliciously sweet liquid for a year and a half when he was in the Maldivc Islands. He saw how the Indians prepared homy from the sap collected by tapping a fruit-growing coconut-tree. He also refers to the milk made by steeping the contents of the nut in water. They use it for lighting and dip bread in it, and the women put it on their hair. A Junnar inscription" refers to the grant of a field for planta- tion of palmyra palms. Quoted by Kosambi, Introduction to Indian History, p.

Economic History of the Deccan Konkana capital. U was chiefly grown in the coastal area. Besides gardens exclu- sively devoted to its cultivation, areca-palm was also planted in the lawn of the dwelling houses. In the Gaifidsaptasail, frequent reference is made to mango and mango-tree. Jambu rose-apple was another tree, which was cultivated on commercial basis. See also KQdombari, td. Bana- refers to the kurula birds biting with their beaks the leaves of the pepper plants grown in the Vindhya forest.

Indian pepper had a good market in the western world. Among the four guilds in which the money was invested, one. This leaf was cultivated extensively in the coas- tal districts. That there was close contact between the south and Kashmir may possibly be inferred from the reference to Kash- mir in a Nagarjunakonda inscription. Thus, sala sliorea robusta] was grown for their hard timber and, as it was of considerable value, plots of land were earmarked for its plantation.

Karanja was another tree for the plantation of which plots were donated. The lac gum is a substance produced on the leaves and branches of certain trees by an insect both for the covering for its egg and the food for its young. It yields a fine dye. A recent survey shows that even today about 61 p. The Vindhya forest apparently extended as far as the neighbourhood of Magadha for the Magadhan king Rajahamsa, after being defeated by the Malava king Manasara, is said to have taken refuge along with his family and retinue in this forest.

Indian Forest Statistics, Thence the pilgrim continued his journey to the south through woods and jungles for over li and reached the Te-na-ka-che-ka Dhanyakajaka country. From there, he went north north-west according to the Life into a jungle, infested by troops of murderous high- waymen, and, after a journey of above li, he reached the Kung-kin or Kan -na-pu'lo Konkanapura country.

The testimony of Hiuen Tsang gives us an idea about the vast expanse of the South Indian forests. Forests mentioned in the Talgunda inscription of the Kadamba king Santivarman. Tothc west of Janasth5na, this forest was known as the Chitrakufijavat.

The tracts of the Dandaka forest had numerous watering places, hermitages, hills, streams, lakes etc. As a result not even a blade of grass is said to have grown there. In these forests grew various kinds of trees some of which, particularly those on the slopes of the Vindhyas, were as high, as almost touching the sky. It was, like other parts of the forest, adorned with various kinds of trees such as sala, tdhy tamdia, kftarjura, 1 Quoted in EHD, pp. From the given position, Govar- dhana appears to have been the same as the village of that name near Nasik. Tigers and leopards are found every- where, white bison and occasionally elephants are met with in the immense jungle about he Pakhal Lake.

Wild hogs are found in the jungles, and Innumerable herds of antelope In the plains. Hyenas, wolves, tiger-cats, bears, porcupine, hare, jackals, etc. The evidence of the GathasaptasatP however, suggests that the forest along tlie banks of tlie Godavari was infested with Hons.

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These beasts also roamed in the VindUya forest. This ambassador stated that the king- dom produced lions, leopards, panthers, camels, rhinoceroses and elephants. Economic History of the Deccan U2 padmapiishkarasatiivadham gajaySihairalankptaml sdrasairhamsakSdamboift sankuiam JalojabibhihJI Animals and birds were also to be found in large numbers along the banks of the Godavari: To this class belonged the vySdhas who used to kill wild animals and to trade in their skio.

Forests 1 13 fat, the limbs become firm, hardy and active ; by it, one gets the power to endure cold and heat, as well as hunger and thirst ; and, by it, one becomes acquainted with the thoughts and actions of various animals in different conditions. By killing the deer and wild yaks, one can prevent the mischief they do to crops ; roads and by-paths are made all safe by the destruction of tigers and wolves ; and one comes to have a look into the woods and hilly regions which serve in more than one way ; it gains the confidence of those that tenant the wilds and serves to stir their warlike enthusiasm, impressing, at the same time, intimidation on hostile armies ; such and other virtues this hunting is calculated to ensure.

Nobody was allowed to drink honey or eat fruits without special permission. So, when the vdnaras, being overjoyed at the discovery of Sita, entered the said forest and drank up all honey, ate up the fruits and destroyed the honey-combs, flowers and foliage, the superintendent yanapala with his men wanted to prevent them only to be manhandled by the drunken monkeys. These and similar other forests were evidently not jungles but pleasure parks where kings and his followers might retire in their leisure. The Hathigumpha inscription refers to the restoration of several such parks by Kharavela.

Barua, Old Brahmi Inscriptions, No. They were assisted by those who reared elephants, those who enchained the legs of elephants, as well as by their retinue of forest guards. The Chinese traveller also agrees with the writer when he says that the elephants caught from the forests of Kalihga were prized by the neighbouring countries. The beasts were apparently coveted for their fighting quality. Forests elephant was not permitted. Instances of deforestation and colonisation arc provided by litcrarj' and epigraphic sources.

Thus, the Dandaka forest was brought under the authority of the kings reigning from Ayodhya. Tlie forest was then given to Agastya, a resident of the Himalayan region, to go over there and take up the clearing of the jungle by excavat- ing river courses, lakes, ponds, etc. When it was thus made habitable, a number -of sages took up their residence there. Being neglected by the successors of Dandaka, the Rakshasas are said to have begun to frequent those regions and disturb the peaceful seers. On the sage's advice, Rama agreed to take up the forest under his protection.

He, thereupon, killed Khara and Dushana, two Rakshasa leaders, along with their followers, in an encounter and made the place safe for the hermits. I , El, Vol. This splendid generalisation, however, docs not fit in ucll with the known facts of ancient Indian history. The king dismissed them wuh the assurance of bringing rain.

They advised the king to send for the white elephant of prince Vessantara, which possessed the magical power of invoking rain. The king thereupon despatched eight Brahmanas to Vessantara to bring that elephant. Die people wandered about destitute hither and thither, leading their children by hand. Ultimately they came to Dantaputa and made a hue and cry before the royal palace. The king asked why the people were lamenting. The people starving, diseased, and destitute are wander- ing about with their little ones held by the hand.

Make rain for us, O king. The king did all this, but even then there was no rain. Finally, the Kalihga king observed the Kuru righteousness. And then the entire country was blessed with rainfall ; the three fears were allayed ; the land became prosperous and fertile.

The author describes how, as a result of the want of rain for twelve years, the crops withered away, medicinal herbs lost curative power and trees bore no fruits. Since the country had no rain for a long time, the pools became beds of mud, streams ceased to flow and roots and fruits could not grow. Religious rites and festivals fell into disuse, conversations ceased and people were forced to take to theft and robbery.

Swarms of crows suffering from starvation flew away and towns, villages and hamlets were almost depopulated. The skulls of men, could be seen wallowing here and there. In a story about the origin of the GautamI, i. As a result, there was a famine owing to which all sages approached Gautama and requested him to save themselves from the calamity. Gautama complied with their request and brought the Ganga to his hermitage, sowed Mi grain in the morning and reaped the crop by midday.

Economic History of the Deccan there was plenty of rain and crops. It is significant that in all the Jataka stories, referred to above, people flock to the capital and make representation to the king when the crops fail owing to drought. And the crops of the husbandmen spring up, each as it is sown, and the children die not, and no misshaped offspring is bom. The responsibility of the state to relieve the subjects from the distress caused by drought or flood is implicitly recognised by the lunagadh inscription. During the reign of Skandagupta the lake burst once again because of excessive rainfall and that, as a result, there was a famine causing great distress to the people.

But immediate attention was given by the state, and the dam was duly repaired. Bray, Census Report ; Baluchistan, Vol. Krisnaswami Aiyaogar, Ancient India, p. Famine and Irrigation repairing works of the embankments is supplied by Kalhana. As a result large tracts of land were made available for cultivation am price of rice came down sharply. Thus, tc remove the menace of the years of failure of monsoons and the consequential drought, irrigation tanks and canals were excava- ted from very early times.

In that case, people had to find a way out for themselves. One such example is fur- nished by a late Tamil inscription. They, therefore, applied to the local temple treasury from which they obtained 1 kalahju of gold and palam of silver, consisting of temple jewels and vessels. In exchange for this, the members of the village assembly alienated 8J veli of land in favour of the god.

It is said that even the lotus-sealed Brahman is unable to recount the fruit of merit accruing from their construction.

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The digging of a tank was considered to be one of the seven great meritorious acts a man was expected to perform during his lifetime, the others being the procreation ofa son, the composition of a poem, the hoarding of treasure, the planting of a grove, the marriage of a girl and the consecration of a temple.

Various methods were again followed for lifting water from these canals to the field. No sound other than this can be heard. We can hear there neither the sound of the bucket, nor of the water-hfl; neither the usually loud pecottah, nor the palm-leaf basket used m irrigation. Almost every catchment basin, however, small, still bears traces of having been bounded across and in many instances this was done in order to secure a paddy on a few acres of stony ungenerous soil to which all the fostering care of the British administration has induced cultivation to return.

Large and more expensive projects were not neglected. Famine and Irrigation that, as early as in the time of the first? As we have seen above, this lake was at first excavated by Rashtriya Pushyagupta during the reign of Chandragupta. Later at the time of Asoka it was restored and adorned with irrigation canals by Yavana- riija Tushaspha. During the reign of Skandagupta the dam burst again in consequence of a torrential rain. Great merit was attached by the Hindus to such pious deeds. Like the repairing work, the digging of tanks and wells was also a matter of pride.

Besides persons of aristocratic birth, humbler folk are also known to have dug tanks and wells in order to achieve religious merit. The tanks and wells constructed at the public or private initiative occasionally served as sources of irrigation. Famine and Irrigation samudra. These are still the source of irrigation for an extensive- area in the vicinity. It is situated in the south-east comer of the valley which is enclosed by lofty hill range on all sides save on the western. The embankments of the canals were constructed with a hard lime gravel mixed with kafikar and stones which were rammed to withstand the rush of water.

They were gradually sloped to the canal bed, which also contained similar flooring. It is so hard that even now a. In addition, on the southern side embankment was further strengthened by a random ruffle wall 4 ft. This stood as- a testimony to the hydraulic skill of the Ikshvaku engineers who- knew the danger out of the adjoining hill slopes. Here traces of a channel and dockyard with embankment walls built out of burnt bricks have been discovered.

The dockyard measuring roughly ft. J24 Eco-wmlc JIhlory of the Deccan land in tlic village of SIddhJrlhaka had to extract from the donor Indravarman II the specific permission of utilising water from the nearby rajatatSka for irrigation purposes. The villagers themselves were also aware of the need of protecting the irrigation works. Instances are not rare where they made agreements among themselves that they would not cause any damage to the trees, wells and tanks, such breach of agreement being punishable by the confiscation of a portion of the lands of the offender lo the local temple.

In Ihe 1, Famine and Irrigation for the construction of a tank, well or channel. The construction of irrigation wells, tanks and canals, therefore, was not always made by the- rulers to gain religious merit only. These were also profitable- as bringing revenue to the Royal Exchequer. He advises remission of irrigation tax for five years in case a. But persons who cultivated the land below the tanks.

The system of regulating the flow of water m the irrigation canals by means of sluice-gates thus appe. Bucket, water-lift, pecottah and palm-leaf baskets were also used in irrigation. The pots were so inclined to the axis that hey dipped and filled while in the stream, and emptied while passing a trough placed above the shaft. The araghatfa, also known as ghaii-yantra and ssdghSfana, was worked not in the same way everywhere.

The wheel had spokes at one end, and worked like: Allan- recognises in the symbols on the obverse of some early Andhra coins from Kolhapur the water-wheel used for irrigation purposes. Inaddiiionto these, there were other mansions, temples, granaries, rest-houses, monasteries, elephant stables, shops, bazaars, saloons, cook-shops odanija- ghara taverns and slaughter houses. Inlcrsccled by main streets, roads alleys and blind lanes these cities were also provided with public squares, market places, parks, fruit and flower gardens, lotus-ponds, bathing tanks and sacred trees.

A drain or sewer led out of the city, and jt was possible for a man to make his escape by it. Outside the city were suburbs and villages. These general features of the ancient Indian towns and cities may be discerned in the Nagarjunakonda and Amaravati sculptures as well as in the paintings of Ajanta.

Cmes and City-gales, etc. IV , p. J28 Towns anti Cities artist, the priikdro being nowhere fully shown in the sculptures. The end of the bridge, which in the ease of a water-moat connects the outside jaitapada with the fortified city, may, however, be recognised in some of tlic sculptures at Amaravati'. Kaufilya" lays down that for protection tlic cit3'-wan should be surrounded by three ditclics cacli being separated from the other by an intervening sp. He further prescribes that tlie sides of these ditches should be built of stones or bricks and the ditches themselves should be filled with perennial flowing water or with water drawn from some other source.

One can vdtncss the application of this view of Kaiuilya in the plan of the now ruined city of Sisupalgarh Orissa , where the builders, as it seems, taking advantage of the proximity of the streamlet called the Gangnii or Gandhavati diverted its waters around the northern, eastern and southern sides of the fort, thus providing a moat with a perennial supply of watcr. The continuous line of the rampart was broken by the gate-house, the number of which varied according to the extent of the city. The approach to the entrance was known as the saukranta.

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