Emotions

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Depending on these reactions, we either experience pride or shame and this results in particular paths of action. Retzinger [92] conducted studies of married couples who experienced cycles of rage and shame. Drawing predominantly on Goffman and Cooley's work, Scheff [93] developed a micro sociological theory of the social bond. The formation or disruption of social bonds is dependent on the emotions that people experience during interactions.

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Based on interaction ritual theory, we experience different levels or intensities of emotional energy during face-to-face interactions. Emotional energy is considered to be a feeling of confidence to take action and a boldness that one experiences when they are charged up from the collective effervescence generated during group gatherings that reach high levels of intensity.

These studies show that learning subjects like science can be understood in terms of classroom interaction rituals that generate emotional energy and collective states of emotional arousal like emotional climate. Apart from interaction ritual traditions of the sociology of emotion, other approaches have been classed into one of 6 other categories Turner, including:.

This list provides a general overview of different traditions in the sociology of emotion that sometimes conceptualise emotion in different ways and at other times in complementary ways. Many of these different approaches were synthesized by Turner in his sociological theory of human emotions in an attempt to produce one comprehensive sociological account that draws on developments from many of the above traditions.

Emotion regulation refers to the cognitive and behavioral strategies people use to influence their own emotional experience. Cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as rational emotive behavior therapy. Yet others approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components like in contemporary Gestalt therapy.

Research on emotions reveals the strong presence of cross-cultural differences in emotional reactions and that emotional reactions are likely to be culture-specific. This implies the need to comprehend the current emotional state, mental disposition or other behavioral motivation of a target audience located in a different culture, basically founded on its national political, social, economic, and psychological peculiarities but also subject to the influence of circumstances and events.

In the s, research in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience has been aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and model emotions. It is an interdisciplinary field spanning computer sciences , psychology , and cognitive science.

The data gathered is analogous to the cues humans use to perceive emotions in others. Another area within affective computing is the design of computational devices proposed to exhibit either innate emotional capabilities or that are capable of convincingly simulating emotions. Emotional speech processing recognizes the user's emotional state by analyzing speech patterns.

The detection and processing of facial expression or body gestures is achieved through detectors and sensors. In the late 19th century, the most influential theorists were William James — and Carl Lange — Lange was a Danish physician and psychologist. Working independently, they developed the James—Lange theory , a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions. The theory states that within human beings, as a response to experiences in the world, the autonomic nervous system creates physiological events such as muscular tension, a rise in heart rate, perspiration, and dryness of the mouth.

Emotions, then, are feelings which come about as a result of these physiological changes, rather than being their cause. Silvan Tomkins — developed the Affect theory and Script theory. The Affect theory introduced the concept of basic emotions, and was based on the idea that the dominance of the emotion, which he called the affected system, was the motivating force in human life. Some of the most influential theorists on emotion from the 20th century have died in the last decade. They include Magda B. Arnold — , an American psychologist who developed the appraisal theory of emotions; [] Richard Lazarus — , an American psychologist who specialized in emotion and stress, especially in relation to cognition; Herbert A.

Simon — , who included emotions into decision making and artificial intelligence; Robert Plutchik — , an American psychologist who developed a psychoevolutionary theory of emotion; [] Robert Zajonc — a Polish—American social psychologist who specialized in social and cognitive processes such as social facilitation; Robert C. Solomon — , an American philosopher who contributed to the theories on the philosophy of emotions with books such as What Is An Emotion?: Classic and Contemporary Readings Oxford, ; Peter Goldie — , a British philosopher who specialized in ethics, aesthetics, emotion, mood and character; Nico Frijda — , a Dutch psychologist who advanced the theory that human emotions serve to promote a tendency to undertake actions that are appropriate in the circumstances, detailed in his book The Emotions ; Jaak Panksepp , an Estonian-born American psychologist, psychobiologist, neuroscientist and pioneer in affective neuroscience.

Influential theorists who are still active include the following psychologists, neurologists, philosophers, and sociologists:. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Emotion disambiguation. For other uses, see Emotional disambiguation. Functional accounts of emotion. Evolution of emotion and Evolutionary psychology. Two-factor theory of emotion. This section includes a list of references , related reading or external links , but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help to improve this section by introducing more precise citations.

December Learn how and when to remove this template message. Emotions portal Affect measures Affective forecasting Emoticons Emotion and memory Emotion Review Emotional intelligence Emotions in virtual communication Empathy Facial feedback hypothesis Fuzzy-trace theory Group emotion Neuroendocrinology Social emotion Social sharing of emotions Two-factor theory of emotion Yerkes—Dodson law.

Our emotional feelings reflect our ability to subjectively experience certain states of the nervous system. The Nature of emotion: Emotional processing, but not emotions, can occur unconsciously. Retrieved 11 November Annual Review of Psychology. The psychological construction of emotion. Annual Review of Sociology. From passions to emotions: The Book of Human Emotions.

Little, Brown, and Company. The Merriam-Webster dictionary 11th ed. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Emotions across languages and cultures: The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University. Ten Issues of Contentment. An Interview with Dr. And how can they be measured? Evolutionary approaches to depression. Informational and motivational functions of affective states. Handbook of motivation and cognition: Foundations of social behavior, 2, Retrieved 30 April Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

Clinical neuropsychology of emotion. Journal of Religion and Health. The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Advances in Psychological Science. Journal of Physiology, Paris. Implications of the vascular theory of emotional efference". A comment on Ellsworth". A critical examination and an alternative theory". The American Journal of Psychology. Also see the index entry for "Emotion" in "Beyond Rationality: Hammond and in "Fooled by Randomness: The situated perspective on emotion. Center for Nonverbal Studies.

Archived from the original on 23 May Retrieved 7 May Hemisphere priming of affect". Hemisphere Priming of Affect ' ". Feeling active or passive". The behavioral activation-behavioral inhibition model of anterior asymmetry". Current Opinion in Neurobiology. Archived from the original on 18 February The New York Times. The elementary forms of the religious life, trans. Human nature and the social order. Shame and rage in marital quarrels. University of Chicago Press. Two studies in the sociology of interactions.

Science demonstrations and emotional energy". Science learning, status and identity formation in an urban middle school. Sociocultural and cultural-historical perspectives. Journal of Research in Science Teaching. The effect of the smile in the Treatment of Depression. Empirical Study with Portuguese Subjects. The Brain and The Face pp. University Fernando Pessoa Press. Archived from the original on 12 May Cross- cultural similarities and differences in emotion and its representation In: Review of personality and social psychology, No. Archived from the original PDF on 28 May Retrieved 13 May The introduction of emotion to computer science was done by Pickard sic who created the field of affective computing.

Rosalind Picard, a genial MIT professor, is the field's godmother; her book, Affective Computing, triggered an explosion of interest in the emotional side of computers and their users. Facial Action Coding System 2. Manual of Scientific Codification of the Human Face. Archived from the original on 19 March The science of emotion. The Dawning of Consciousness. An Integration of Cognitive and Neuroscientific Approaches. The Brain and The Face. The Psychology of Emotions: The Allure of Human Face. The Emotions and Cultural Analysis.

Handbook of Cognition and Emotion. University of California Press. Civic Participation and Moral Theology. The neurobiology of emotion. Psychology of emotion and stress. The Intelligence of Emotions. A general psychoevolutionary theory of emotion. Theory, research, and experience: Yet the difference between the two cases is often very slight. Acting out of anger may be immediate, as in the case of a spontaneous insult, or it may be protracted or delayed.

It may be expressed in a series of punitive actions that go on for months or years or in vengeful acts that follow the provoking occurrence and the anger by an equally lengthy period of time. But even the immediate expression of emotion in overt action may be and usually is protracted in time and not merely momentary. Running from danger in fear may go on for as long as it needs to as long as the threat is evident. The expression of profound love, many people would say, goes on for a lifetime, though it may also consist of any number of both spontaneous and deliberate acts and gestures.

Verbal expressions are of particular interest. They can be spontaneous and immediate, as are the hoots and cheers of sports fans, but they can obviously be more eloquent , articulate , and deliberate.

A funeral oration may be heartfelt and expressive of the emotion of grief; an apology can also be heartfelt and expressive of the emotions of shame and remorse. James introduced his theory of emotions with an important qualification: The initiating cause of emotion, according to James, is a perception.

James did not take perception to be a constituent of emotion, but he clearly recognized its importance. It is not just a feeling based on a physiological disturbance. Thus, James alluded to intentionality , the feature of some mental processes in virtue of which they are essentially about or directed toward an object. Many theorists following James have revised his analysis by including perception, and with it intentionality, as an essential part of emotion.

Indeed, some theorists have claimed that an emotion is just a special kind of perception. But the common metaphor of colour does not do justice to emotional experience. Emotion is not something that is distinct from and somehow overlays an experience; the experience is part of the structure of the emotion itself.

The experiential structures of emotion include, first and foremost, intentionality and what the emotion is about—a person, an act, an event, or a state of affairs. Such theories are often very similar, varying mainly in their emphasis on the primary importance of belief as opposed to evaluative judgment.

Emotions involve knowledge, beliefs, opinions, and desires about the world. Thus, feeling must include not only bodily feelings but the cognitively rich experiences of knowing, engaging, and caring. The experiential dimension of an emotion includes not only physical sensations but the experience of an object and its environment through the unique perspective provided by that emotion. The experience of being angry at Smith, for example, consists to a large extent in the experience of Smith from a certain perspective—e.

The experience of being in love with Jones consists to a large extent in the experience of Jones from another perspective—e. The experiences of anger and love also include various thoughts and memories and intentions to act in certain ways. Emotional experience also includes pleasure and pain, as Aristotle insisted, but rarely as isolated feelings. More often, different aspects of an emotion are pleasurable or painful, as thoughts or memories may be pleasurable or painful. The emotion as such may be pleasurable or painful e. But, again, emotional matters are not always so straightforward.

By smiling one indicates friendliness and perhaps lack of intent to cause harm; by frowning one conveys the opposite. The emotional expressions that are so evident in the face and body serve as the first means of communication between a mother and her infant. We laugh together and our mutual good humour increases and strengthens our pleasure. But this aspect includes much more than communication. It also includes the social constitution, or social construction, of emotions with and through other people.

Even the basic emotions, which are generally assumed to have a neurological core, are shaped to a large extent by social factors. Social context determines the causes of emotions in an obvious sense: A Vodou Voodoo curse, for example, produces terror in one society but only bemusement in another. A husband who sees his wife in the company of another man becomes jealous in one society but may be indifferent in another.

All emotions involve cognition , and all are influenced by moral values and evaluative concepts, many if not all of which are learned. The concepts of right and wrong, appropriate and inappropriate and their proper application are learned in the specific circumstances of each group or society.

The emotions that make a film a hit... or a miss

An expression of anger is utterly inappropriate in most public circumstances in Japan, but it is quite to be expected at an urban intersection in the United States. The cultural meaning of an emotion is also and obviously socially determined. In Tahiti anger is considered extremely dangerous and is even demonized; in the Mediterranean it is often a sign of virility, suggesting righteousness. This is not to say that the social influences on emotion are limited to their cultural interpretations.

The emotions themselves are constituted , at least in part, by such interpretations. The socially constituted part of an emotion may be smaller in basic emotions than in cognitively rich emotions such as moral indignation and romantic love, but culture as well as biology, social differences as well as individual differences, determine what emotions there are and whether, where, and when it is appropriate to have them.

The fact that emotions involve behaviour, thoughts, and culture raises the question of whether or to what extent emotions are rational. For philosophers such as Plato c. But behaviour and thoughts can be rational or irrational, and culture imposes its own standards of rationality. To that extent, at least, overt emotional expressions and thoughts can be judged according to such standards.

The structure of emotions

In anger, people often act and think irrationally. But what is less often emphasized is that anger can result in behaviour and thoughts that are quite rational, in the sense that they are strategically successful in articulating or channeling the emotion into constructive action.

The thoughts that one has in anger may also be accurate and insightful—e. And culture, of course, imposes its own criteria for deciding which expressions and thoughts are rational, as well as which emotions it is rational to have in which circumstances. To be jealous in certain cultures and in certain circumstances may be perfectly appropriate and therefore rational. But in other cultures or other circumstances jealousy is inappropriate and therefore irrational.

An emotion can also be rational or irrational in two more specific senses: An example of 1 is: Smith is angry at Jones for saying something offensive, when in fact Jones said no such thing and there is no good reason to think that he did. An example of 2 is: Smith is angry at Jones for saying something offensive, but in fact what Jones said was not offensive because it was not intentional or because it was an accurate and constructive criticism of Smith, for which Smith should not be offended or angry.

In the first example the anger is irrational because it is based on a false belief about the situation; in the second it is irrational because it involves an unjust or unfair evaluation.

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In yet another sense, emotions can be rational insofar as they are functional. It has become something of a platitude in contemporary psychology that emotions have evolved along with human beings and are therefore the product of natural selection. This new technology means scientists may be able to give the film industry the tools to understand their viewers and work out what they really want to see on screen. For example, political thriller The Constant Gardener was nominated for four Oscars, winning the best supporting actress award for Rachel Weisz, in Telling the story of a British diplomat in Kenya uncovering the mystery behind his wife's death, it follows a downward emotional arc.

But while they may be critically acclaimed, these "riches to rags" films often fail to set the box office alight. Consider Lawrence of Arabia, one of the most critically acclaimed films of all time, which received seven Oscars in , including the best picture award. Another example is Girl, Interrupted which earned Angelia Jolie the best supporting actress win in but failed to achieve box office returns. When it comes to financial success, it is actually "man in a hole" films - an emotional fall followed by a rise - that come out on top, regardless of genre or production budget.

Using a filtering process , we selected 6, films released between and and added up Oscar nominations in all categories. Each sentence was given a score calculated by averaging the sentimental value of each word. An emotionally negative term scored minus one, an emotionally neutral term scored nought, and an emotionally positive term scored one point. The total sentiment for each film was accumulated and overlaid on to the span of the film, to map the emotional arc. Films were then grouped based on the similarity of their emotional arc. By doing this, scientists discovered that films, like novels, all fitted within six standard emotional journeys:.

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