Bled My Blood (Only A Fragment Book 1)

Human Physiology/Blood physiology

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Since the s, many aneurysms are treated by a minimal invasive procedure known as endovascular coiling , which is carried out by instrumentation through large blood vessels. However, this procedure has higher recurrence rates than the more invasive craniotomy with clipping. It may be relatively safe to restart blood thinners after a ICH. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Emergency medicine clinics of North America. Imaging of the Brain, Expert Radiology Series,1: Imaging of the Brain.

Toward Understanding Manifestations and Treatment". Archives of Internal Medicine.

Archived from the original on Fundamentals of Diagnostic Radiology. A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Cerebrovascular diseases G45—G46 and I60—I69 , — Carotid artery stenosis cerebral: Anterior spinal artery syndrome Vertebrobasilar insufficiency Subclavian steal syndrome brainstem: Cerebral aneurysm Intracranial berry aneurysm Charcot—Bouchard aneurysm. Neurotrauma S06, Sx4, T Intracranial hemorrhage Intra-axial Intraparenchymal hemorrhage Intraventricular hemorrhage Extra-axial Subdural hematoma Epidural hematoma Subarachnoid hemorrhage Brain herniation Cerebral contusion Cerebral laceration Concussion Post-concussion syndrome Second-impact syndrome Dementia pugilistica Chronic traumatic encephalopathy Diffuse axonal injury Abusive head trauma Penetrating head injury.

Nerve injury Peripheral nerve injury classification Wallerian degeneration Injury of accessory nerve Brachial plexus injury Traumatic neuroma. Diagnostic peritoneal lavage Focused assessment with sonography for trauma. Advanced trauma life support Trauma surgery Trauma center Trauma team Damage control surgery Early appropriate care. Abdominal trauma Chest trauma Facial trauma Head injury Spinal cord injury. Geriatric trauma Pediatric trauma. Posttraumatic stress disorder Wound healing Acute lung injury Crush syndrome Rhabdomyolysis Compartment syndrome Contracture Volkmann's contracture Fat embolism Chronic traumatic encephalopathy.

Menstruation, also called menses MEN-seez , is a normal part of being a healthy female of reproductive age. During menstruation, the lining of a woman's uterus YOO-ter-us is shed, resulting in blood and tissue being expelled from the body.

Menstruation is just one part of a cycle that the female reproductive system undergoes each month when a woman is not pregnant. The almond-sized ovaries contain the female reproductive cells, or eggs. The ovaries also make chemicals called hormones that act as messengers throughout the body. Eggs are carried through the fallopian tubes to the uterus, which is a pear-shaped, muscular organ in which a fertilized egg can grow and develop into a baby.

If the egg is not fertilized, the lining of the uterus, which had thickened in preparation for pregnancy, is shed. The blood and tissue fragments exit the uterus through its opening, the cervix, and travel through the vagina to the outside of the body. The menstrual cycle is controlled by hormones that are in a delicate balance. The hormones interact with each other and with the reproductive organs to either take care of a fertilized egg that will become a baby or cause menstruation to occur.

The anatomy of the female reproductive system, including an unfertilized egg in one of the fallopian tubes. The day menstrual cycle, showing changes in the thickness of the endo-metrial lining. In a woman who is not pregnant, the menstrual cycle occurs approximately every 28 days. However, the length of the cycle can vary from 21 to 35 days in normal healthy girls and women. Cycle length is calculated from the first day of one period to the first day of the next. Usually, bleeding lasts for a period of several days, hence the term menstrual "period.

The first time a young girl gets her period is called menarche MEN-ar-kee and can be a scary thing or a much anticipated event, depending on the girl. In the United States, the average age when menarche occurs is 12, but some girls start menstruating at 10, others at There is huge variation among women in the length and duration of their menstrual cycle and whether they bleed a lot or a little. Some women have a period every 23 days, others every Some periods last 3 days, whereas others last 7.

And some women use 3 tampons or pads a day, whereas others need Because of this wide range of "normal," determining if a woman has a menstrual disorder can be difficult. It requires that a woman knows her own body and what is normal for her. Menstrual disorders occur when something goes wrong with the normal monthly menstrual cycle.

There are many different types of disorders. Usually, they occur when the hormones controlling menstruation are out of balance for some reason. However, menstrual disorders can be caused by underlying medical conditions. A woman who experiences changes in her menstrual cycle, especially if these changes include heavy bleeding or cause problems with daily living, should see her doctor right away.

Amenorrhea a-men-o-REE-a means "no menstrual periods. Secondary amenorrhea is when a women or girl stops getting her monthly period. A related problem is oligomenorrhea OL-i-go-men-o-REE-a , which means having menstrual periods that are more than 35 days apart. Once doctors diagnose problems with menstrual cycle length, they then try to find out what is causing it. Shelly, a year-old woman who usually gets her periods like clock-work, stopped having her period for 3 months.

The first thing her doctor ordered was a pregnancy test; it was a surprise to Shelly and her husband, but she was pregnant. Pregnancy is the most common cause of amenorrhea in women in their reproductive years. When Anne turned 48, the amount of time between her periods started getting longer and longer. When she did not get her period for 4 months, she went to see her doctor.

The doctor examined Anne and did some tests; Anne's amenorrhea was caused by approaching menopause. Menopause is another perfectly natural cause of amenorrhea. Kim provides a good example of primary amenorrhea, which refers to a girl not getting her first period by the time she is This condition may be caused by a hormonal imbalance or a developmental problem. Young female athletes often experience primary or secondary amenorrhea or both; strenuous exercise seems to lower estrogen levels, thus causing periods to stop. Altered hormone levels can cause anovulation an-ov-yoo-LAY-shun , when ovulation does not occur, which in turn often causes amenorrhea.

Monocytes are the biggest of the white blood cells and are responsible for rallying the cells to defend the body. Monocytes carry out phagocytosis and are also called macrophages. Lymphocytes help with our immune response. There are two Lymphocytes: B-Lymphocytes produce antibodies that find and mark pathogens for destruction. T-Lymphocytes kill anything that they deem abnormal to the body. The Granular phenotype are able to stain blue. The Agranular phenotype are able to stain red.

As you can see, there is a great deal of differentiation between WBCs. These special cells help our bodies defend themselves against pathogens. Not only do they help our immune system but they remove toxins, wastes, and abnormal or damaged cells. Thus, we can say that WBCs' main function is being Phagocytic which means to engulf or swallow cells. Platelets, also called thrombocytes, are membrane-bound cell fragments. They result from fragmentation of large cells called Megakaryocytes - which are cells derived from stem cells in the bone marrow.

Platelets are produced at a rate of billion per day. Their production is regulated by the hormone called Thrombopoietin. The circulating life of a platelet is 8—10 days. The sticky surface of the platelets allow them to accumulate at the site of broken blood vessels to form a clot. This aids in the process of hemostasis "blood stopping". Platelets secrete factors that increase local platelet aggregation e. Hemostasis is the natural process of stopping blood flow or loss of blood following an injury.

Menstrual Disorders

It has three stages: Once the flow of blood has been stopped, tissue repair can begin. Vascular spasm or Vasoconsriction: In a normal individual, immediately after a blood vessel has been cut and endothelial cells are damaged, vasoconstriction occurs, thus slowing blood flow to the area. Smooth muscle in the vessel wall goes through spasms or intense contractions that constrict the vessel. If the vessels are small, spasms compress the inner walls together and may be able to stop the bleeding completely.

If the vessels are medium to large-sized, the spasms slow down immediate outflow of blood, lessening the damage but still preparing the vessel for the later steps of hemostasis. These vascular spasms usually last for about 30 minutes, long enough for the next two stages of hemostasis to take place.

Formation of a Platelet Plug: Within 20 seconds of an injury, coagulation is initiated. Contrary to popular belief, clotting of a cut on the skin is not initiated by air or drying out, but by platelets adhering to and activated by collagen in the blood vessels endothelium. The activated platelets then release the contents of their granules, which contain a variety of substances that stimulate further platelet activation and enhance the hemostatic process. When the lining of a blood vessel breaks and endothelial cells are damaged, revealing collagen proteins in the vessel wall, platelets swell, grow spiky extensions, and start clumping together.

They start to stick to each other and the walls of the vessel. This continues as more platelets congregate and undergo these same transformations. This process results in a platelet plug that seals the injured area. If the injury is small, a platelet plug may be able to form and close it within several seconds.

If the damage is more serious, the next step of blood clotting will take place.

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Platelets contain secretory granules. When they stick to the proteins in the vessel walls, they degranulate , thus releasing their products, which include ADP adenosine diphosphate , serotonin, and thromboxane A2. A Blood Clot Forms: If the platelet plug is not enough to stop the bleeding, the third stage of hemostasis begins: First, blood changes from a liquid to a gel. At least 12 substances called clotting factors take part in a series of chemical reactions that eventually create a mesh of protein fibers within the blood. Each of the clotting factors has a very specific function.

We will discuss just three of the substances here: Prothrombin and fibrinogen are proteins that are produced and deposited in the blood by the liver. The use of adsorbent chemicals, such as zeolites, and other hemostatic agents, are also being explored for use in sealing severe injuries quickly. These substances are important because they contain specific sequences of amino acid and carbohydrates which are antigenic. As well as being on the surface of RBCs, some of these antigens are also present on the cells of other tissues.

A complete blood type describes the set of 29 substances on the surface of RBCs, and an individual's blood type is one of the many possible combinations of blood group antigens. Usually only the ABO blood group system and the presence or absence of the Rhesus D antigen also known as the Rhesus factor or RH factor are determined and used to describe the blood type. Over different blood group antigens have been found, many of these being very rare. If an individual is exposed to a blood group antigen that is not recognized as self, the individual can become sensitized to that antigen; the immune system makes specific antibodies which binds specifically to a particular blood group antigen and an immunological memory against that particular antigen is formed.

These antibodies can bind to antigens on the surface of transfused red blood cells or other tissue cells often leading to destruction of the cells by recruitment of other components of the immune system. Knowledge of a individual's blood type is important to identify appropriate blood for transfusion or tissue for organ transplantation. Several different RBC surface antigens stemming from one allele or very closely linked genes are collectively labeled as a blood group system or blood group.

The two most important blood group systems were discovered during early experiments with blood transfusion, the ABO group in and the Rhesus group in These two blood groups are reflected in the common nomenclature A positive, O negative, etc. Development of the Coombs test in and the advent of transfusion medicine led to discovery of more blood groups. Blood group AB individuals have both A and B antigens on the surface of their RBCs, and their blood serum does not contain any antibodies against either A or B antigen. Therefore, a individual with type AB blood can receive blood from any group with AB being preferable , but can only donate blood to another group AB individual.

AB blood is also known as "universal receiver". Therefore, a group A individual can only receive blood from individuals of groups A or O with A being preferable , and can donate blood to individuals of groups A or AB. Therefore, a group B individual can only receive blood from individuals of groups B or O with B being preferable , and can donate blood to individuals of groups B or AB.

O blood is also known as "universal donor". Blood types are inherited and represent contributions from both parents. The ABO blood type is controlled by a single gene with three alleles: The gene encodes an enzyme that modifies the carbohydrate content of the red blood cell antigens. Thus, it is extremely unlikely for a type AB parent to have a type O child it is not, however, direct proof of illegitimacy: The resulting red blood cells do not usually express A or B antigen at the same level that would be expected on common group A or B red blood cells, which can help solve the problem of an apparently genetically impossible blood group.

Many people have the Rh Factor on the red blood cell. Rh carriers do not have the antibodies for the Rh Factor, but can make them if exposed to Rh. Most commonly Rh is seen when anti-Rh antibodies cross from the mothers placenta into the child before birth. The Rh Factor enters the child destroying the child's red blood cells. This is called Hemolytic Disease. Blood transfusions between donor and recipient of incompatible blood types can cause severe acute immunological reactions, hemolysis RBCT destruction , renal failure, shock, and sometimes death.

Antibodies can be highly active and can attack RBCs and bind components of the complement system to cause massive hemolysis of the transfused blood. A patient should ideally receive their own blood or type-specific blood products to minimize the chance of a transfusion reaction. If time allows, the risk will further be reduced by cross-matching blood, in addition to blood typing both recipient and donor. Cross-matching involves mixing a sample of the recipient's blood with a sample of the donor's blood and checking to see if the mixture agglutinates, or forms clumps.

Blood bank technicians usually check for agglutination with a microscope, and if it occurs, that particular donor's blood cannot be transfused to that particular recipient. Blood transfusion is a potentially risky medical procedure and it is vital that all blood specimens are correctly identified, so in cross-matching labeling is standardized using a barcode system known as ISBT When considering a plasma transfusion, keep in mind that plasma carries antibodies and no antigens. For example you can't give type O plasma to a type A, B or AB, because a person with type O blood has A and B antibodies and the recipient would have an immune response.

On the other hand an AB donor could give plasma to anyone, since they have no antibodies. The table to the right is for plasma transfusions, and it's just the opposite for RBC transfusions. It doesn't take the Rh factor into effect, though, because most people don't have antibodies for the Rhesus factor it only happens upon exposure. Often a pregnant woman carries a fetus with a different blood type to herself, and sometimes the mother forms antibodies against the red blood cells of the fetus, leading to low fetal blood counts, a condition known as hemolytic disease of the newborn.

Hemolytic disease of the newborn, also known as HDN is an alloimmune condition that develops in a fetus when the IgG antibodies produced by the mother and passing through the placenta include ones which attack the red blood cells in the fetal circulation. The red cells are broken down and the fetus can develop reticulocytosis and anemia. The fetal disease ranges from mild to very severe and fetal death from heart failure - hydrops fetalis - can occur. When the disease is moderate or severe many erythroblasts are present in the fetal blood and so these forms of the disease can be called erythroblastosis fetalis.

Before birth, options for treatment include intrauterine transfusion or early induction of labor when pulmonary maturity has been attained, fetal distress is present, or 35 to 37 weeks of gestation have passed. Rh negative mothers who have had a pregnancy with or are pregnant with a Rh positive infant, are given Rh immune globulin RhIG also known as Rhogam, during pregnancy and after delivery to prevent sensitization to the D antigen.

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