Velejando o Titicaca (Portuguese Edition)

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In music, it is a dramatic lowering of the volume, vocal or instrumental — not necessarily pianissimo, but definitely a hushed tonal quality. Hypatia, by Charles William Mitchell It was famous for its Lighthouse Pharos , one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World , and its Great Library , the largest in antiquity, which was burned repeatedly by Romans, Byzantines, and Arabs.

Its demise has become a symbol of knowledge and culture destroyed. It was part of a larger research institution, the Musaeum , where many of the most famous thinkers of the ancient world studied: Estimates range from 40, to , scrolls at its height. After the main library was destroyed, scholars used a daughter library in a temple, the Serapeum , located in another part of the city.

In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire , Edward Gibbon described Theophilus as the perpetual enemy of peace and virtue, a bold, bad man, whose hands were alternately polluted with gold and with blood. After tearing her body in pieces, they took her mangled limbs to a place called Cinaron, and there burnt them. The first democracy in the world was established in Athens in BCE under Cleisthenes as a direct, participatory system, in which the citizens voted directly on legislation and executive bills, while those selected for office served collectively.

The selection was done mostly by lot, not election, because the latter favours the rich, noble, famous, educated, eloquent, and handsome. Allotment was regarded as the most democratic means to prevent the corrupt purchase of votes and give citizens a unique form of political equality. In this way more and more citizens were engaged in politics, ruling and being ruled in turn, as Aristotle wrote. Elected rather than chosen by lot therefore coming from the higher classes were the ten generals, due to their necessary expertise in matters of politics and war, and also those who handled large sums of money: We do not say that a man who takes no interest in politics is a man who minds his own business, Pericles declared; we say that he has no business here at all.

What are the arms at our disposal, if not these We find inside the body: Before the Battle of Salamis e. In modern historiography, polis is used to indicate a Greek city-state, though this term is inadequate. The Greek poleis were not like the Phoenician city-states, which were ruled by a king or a small oligarchy , with their inhabitants being mere subjects. Thus the term polis came to signify state: Not to mention politics ….

The Library of Alexandria during its heyday, its acme. Leave a comment Voyage 8. The result is more than obvious in the above citation from a text on a record with Songs of the Peloponnese , issued by the Society for the Dissemination of National Music , and written by Simon Karas himself — despite his admittedly immense and invaluable contribution on this subject. Such were the claims put forward in all seriousness from both sides, as if it mattered much whether the Tsakonian dance reminded us of a Pythic nomos or if it reenacted, faithfully or not, the escape from the Labyrinth , while the… Minotaur was anything but dead, and Karas pointed his finger at him immediately afterwards:.

Olha nossos post’s ae:

In a similar text on a record with Songs of Constantinople and the Sea of Marmara , he wrote:. The term psaltery was general in ancient Hellas, had no relation with the religious psalms and referred to all string instruments played directly with the fingers without a plectrum. The most impressive of the latter was perhaps the sambuca that was more than one metre high and looked like a homonymous siege engine. It seems that the instruments of this numerous family, especially those with many strings, did not differ much — at least for the non-connoisseurs — and thus many people confused them.

However, some of them were played upright evolving into the harp, while others were used horizontally and ended up as the qanun and santur. These instruments were known and in use in Greece before it became… Greece, that is, since the pre-Hellenic early Bronze Age of the 3rd millennium BCE. There is enough evidence, albeit unclear, that seems to point to an Asian or Thracian origin what Strabo has said.

More tangible are the archeological finds with a plethora of depictions of harpists excavated in the Near East — mainly in Egypt and Mesopotamia. The Harpist of Keros is unique, but only as an exquisite work of visual art…. The name of a similar instrument called phoenix , originating probably in Phoenicia , points to the same direction.

But the mentality peculiar to a good number of Modern Greeks was also widespread in ancient Hellas. What we get, indeed, out of this claim is that in his time the islet was not only inhabited and not barren as it is today, but instead covered with vegetation including palm trees! The great Samian philosopher, mathematician and music theorist of the 6th century BCE, however, before going to the Occident to set up his school in Crotone of Magna Graecia , had travelled around a lot in the Orient and become familiar with the achievements of the Assyro — Babylonians and Egyptians in the above areas.

It is not known if the monochord qanun was the starting point of an evolution that led to the tanbur and quanun. Where did Karas of the 20th century CE find this right? The Asian Assyrian cithara kithara is already known to us together with its genealogical tree see Voyage 4. The sad truth is that, in the sense that Karas wished for, neither the cithara-guitar nor the oud or laouto were Hellenic. Personally, I think that these systems confuse, rather than enlighten, the ordinary music lovers. So I suggest that we pass them by.

But the same does not apply to diapason. This is the way the Arabs play the qanun nowadays. The historian Duris , however, attributed it to a Thracian musician called Magdis. The ancient Hellenic musical term diapason is just one of all those the Westerners adopted to develop and give prestige to their music. Consulting a musical dictionary you are about to read:. How comes, you wonder, that the ancient Hellenes invented a term for something that they did not have?

Thus, harmony in modal music is not about notes sounding together, but refers to the relationship of any note with those that have preceded it and the others that follow, in a system structured dynamically and horizontally rather than statically and vertically. Harmony for the ancient Hellenes was any arrangement of notes within an octave. In modal music it refers to the relationship of any note with those that have preceded it and the others that follow.

Polyphony appears whenever there is no space for microtones. Women musicians, Al-Andalus Andalusia. But not even polyphony originated in the Occident. We have seen that polyphony is nothing unique. Just think of how many kinds of polyphony are still practiced in the area centered on the Balkans e. Polyphony appears whenever there is no space for microtones in music.

Later on, the term diapason replaced that of harmony. Today diapason is also a tuning fork or any standard pitch used for tuning. It could certainly be maintained that not even the concept of music remained unchanged — indeed, this development took place in ancient Greek times. For a long time this term denoted the combined spiritual and mental performance especially in the letters and arts. As Plato says in The Republic , the body needs exercise while the soul needs music. Besides, at that time poetry without music was unthinkable. The two arts became independent in the 4th century BCE.

It was then that the two terms acquired their current meaning. With the special meaning of artistic creation it was first used by Simonides of Ceos 6th-5th century ; a poet was thought to be a composer of music. The word music was perhaps invented by Lasus of Hermione 6th century , who was among the first artists that combined the qualities of a musician and a musicologist, having dealt with both the art and science of music.

As for the perception of music, there were two schools: Pythagoras disapproved of the appraisal of music through the senses hearing. The merit of this art, he used to say, is because we can perceive it through the intellect mind. Aristoxenus, on his part, supported a dual scientific principle: Nevertheless, it makes no big difference the way the sound of an instrument is amplified. So why such fury? In ancient Greece only one out of the four basic modes was Hellenic in origin: MUSIC is as old as we are: Nations, on the other hand, appeared somewhat recently in history not in order to fulfill some human needs, as music does, but rather for economic and political reasons.

I mean, of course, nation states and not ethnicities , which are something different, formed since ancient times, deriving from different human clans and tribes. Therefore, there are no national characteristics in music. Essentially, there is no Hellenic, Turkish, Bulgarian, etc music. When we use national attributes we simply mean that a piece e. There are no national characteristics in music.

Folk music is not national but ethnic. Erudite music is multinational. Indian itinerary musician, by Shagufta Mehdi. Folk music is born as an idiom in areas smaller than the present nation states, under conditions of agricultural natural economy — areas which are generally divided among neighbouring nation states e. Thrace is divided into three. The pace of its development, as well as the inflow of outside influence, is determined by the geography of each region. As we have seen see Voyage 4 , the more the ethnicities, the richer the idioms. Therefore, folk music is not national but ethnic.

Erudite music , on the other hand, has been a collective effort of elite musicians streaming into the metropolises of multinational empires.

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Because of the involvement of artists from several nationalities or ethnicities, each with another background, this music is mostly multinational or transnational, but never international. This applies even to the classical music of Europe, although, broadly speaking, national borders had been drawn there before the period of its great acme.

In the final analysis, we should not care much about the alleged national character or origin of music or its instruments. Such thoughts distract our attention from the essence of the matter, which is music itself. After all, who can trace its evolution? Who was the first person who noticed that a tense bowstring produces a sound? Who then found that the sound is amplified if there is something hollow to function as a soundboard? Such discoveries are as old as man. So they should have taken place in Africa, the cradle of the human race.

What does this mean? That music and its instruments are African-born? It just means that in various periods of time, in several areas of the world, we can observe the emergence of the same instruments more or less, for they are based on the same natural laws. In various times and spaces we observe the emergence of the same instruments more or less for they are based on the same natural laws.

The reconstructed silver lyre of Ur in Mesopotamia. Because, in truth, all instruments used in ancient Hellas were imported from the Orient — except one: All instruments used in ancient Hellas were imported from the Orient — except the hydraulis pipe organ that was invented by Greeks but is not in use in Hellas anymore….

Hydraulis, Dion , 1st century BCE. Quite rightly these Greek scientists are thought of as the spiritual fathers of Leonardo da Vinci and so many other inventive minds of Europe from the Renaissance onwards. Ctesibius apparently based himself on the hydraulic inventions and applications of the Syracusan , mainly on Archimedean hydraulic clocks. Along with hydraulics , Ctesibius studied pneumatics — the science dealing with pneuma , that is, air, and its several applications. Along with hydraulics, Ctesibius studied pneumatics — the science dealing with pneuma, that is, air, gas.

Let me remark en passant that the rapid decline of the Greek language, due to the decline of Hellenism, in parallel with the spread — or rather: In spite of all the Alexandrian treatises on pneumatics, there is no such entry in Modern Greek dictionaries… f. A hydraulis excavated at Aquincum modern Budapest in Well, what pneumatics anyway? After all, no work of Ctesibius has survived. The opposite is true in the case of a later engineer whose work is partly extant — although he remains similarly inconspicuous among the Hellenes.

Apart from his numerous wonderful inventions — e. However, if the Modern Greeks hear his name by chance and wish to learn more about him, they are obliged to consult foreign publications, since his treatises have never been published in modern Hellas …. The work of the Alexandrian engineers could not go unnoticed in Rome or Constantinople that were great powers. There were several such mechanisms in the palaces golden plane trees with singing birds, lions and other wild animals roaring while turning their necks, griffins flapping their wings, etc in order to impress foreign visitors.

The hydraulic organ was equally impressive; thus the musical instrument ended up… diplomatic. In the 8th century, the Byzantine emperor Constantine V , the so-called… Copronymus, g donated an organ to the Frankish king Pepin the… Short — the instrument is now known all over the world by the Greek term organ meaning instrument among other things — and what followed is common knowledge more or less. Political history, however, developed in another direction. It was the beginning of the end, a crucial turning point, a development that left its indelible stamp on the history of not only the Mediterranean , or even Europe, but also the whole world, because since then everything changed.

It marked the end of the epoch that began in the Near East during the Neolithic era, with the birth of civilization, and the Mediterranean as the epicentre of history. Mare nostrum was de facto marginalized. Its fortunes would since be governed by non-Mediterranean powers. The Greek lexicographers and others do not seem to bother at all that these lands have been equally holy for Islam, or that the Muslims are rather more religious than the Christians. See, for example, the hydraulis we were lucky to excavate at Dion: Was there a thorough research in advance, or such a conclusion was reported lightheartedly?

The aim was to restore the instrument or to revamp it in the font of European polyphony? A diaulos player in a symposium, by Euaion painter. Can we possibly assume that the ancient musicians we see depicted so often with diaulos double aulos played in… thirds? Each instrument is made based on the specifications of the kind of music which is prescribed for.

And what we do is to put the blame solely on such… cloners! Man made the first giant leap here with the Neolithic agricultural revolution. It took millennia until something similar happened again, with the industrial revolution that began in England in the 18th century. Man made the first giant leap in the Fertile Crescent with the Neolithic agricultural revolution.

There is, of course, a view that this second revolution constituted a return to barbarism. But let us stick to generally accepted ideas, for the time being. Even common sense says that the key was the first step, when hunters and gatherers became pastoralists and farmers. The development most probably was brought about by women: Thus, we can reasonably assume that agriculture , especially farming, the main aspect of the rural economy emerging then, has been an innovation brought forth by women.

As we know, a farmer is much more bound to the land than a hunter-gatherer or a pastoralist. Recent genetic studies indicate that the populations not only of people, but even of cattle, in various Italian regions, especially in Tuscany , are more related to Anatolia, mainly in the northwest, than to anywhere else. Etruscans dancing, wall painting in a tomb. A famous passage from Herodotus portrays the migration and drifting of Lydians because of famine:. Drought could have easily precipitated socio-economic problems and wars. As regards the story told by Herodotus and its link to the Sea Peoples, several scholars contend that those called Teresh by the Egyptians were none others than the Tyrrhenians, or Tyrsenians, who are often identified with the Tusci hence Tuscany , the Latin exonym for the Etruscans , or Rasena, as they called themselves.

The Tyrsenian linguistic family , together with Etruscan , includes the Lemnian language , spoken on the Aegean island of Lemnos until the 6th century BCE. Another Aegean tongue possibly related to the Etruscan was the Minoan Cretan.

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A third Aegean island close to Anatolia mentioned as their possible homeland by Thucydides is that of Lesbos. This version would serve their interests for the Etruscans were their rivals. If they showed that they had a common ancestry, any further animosity between them would be considered fratricidal.

There are some clues to support this view. Several writers, as e.

The Troad was outside the territory but within the sphere of influence of Hatti. However, another Hittite record points to a different location, for it contains a list of cities, among them Tarsa, most likely Tarsus. Anatolian connections have been suggested for other Sea Peoples, as well, like the Lukka Lycians.

Most striking is that the vast majority of them seem to have descended from the Troad. This long, ravaging war, in combination with the widespread famine in the entire peninsula, created the explosive conditions leading to the collapse. Under the circumstances, many Trojans, allies or neighbours became refugees, and some survived by their wits and swords.

Archeological evidence leads to the conclusion that the Sea Peoples were not pirates anymore, nor raiders plundering and pillaging established cities, but instead a mass of people looking for a place to settle, in search of a home. This was obvious since their first invasion of Egypt under Libyan leadership when they were accompanied by their families and belongings.

The Libyan tribes also played a role in the first campaigns against Egypt. Herodotus and Hecataeus mentioned one of them centuries later. It was the Berber tribe of the Maxyes or Mazyes, the Mazaces to the Romans or the Meshwesh to the Egyptians, who also claimed to have a Trojan heritage.

Trojan War scenes on pottery. A Peleset captive in Egypt, and the particular Phaestos disc symbol below on the right. The Cycladic civilization , one of the most important Pelasgian cultures: The ancient canal linking the Mediterranean and the Red Seas is also shown.

Others have theorized that they became part of the Israelite confederacy, as the tribe of Asher. Another people connected with the Hebrews were the Tjeker. Moving to Canaan, they captured the city-state of Dor and turned it into a large, well-fortified capital of their kingdom. Dor was violently destroyed in the midth century BCE by the expanding Phoenicians , who were checked by the Philistines, and then by the Hebrews. King David if he was something more than just a mythological figure supposedly conquered Dor and the Tjeker were mentioned no more.

Achilles and Ajax playing a dice game: A possible linguistic connection has been proposed between the Tjeker and the Tekrur, identified with the Teucri, a tribe described by some ancient sources as inhabiting northwest Anatolia to the south of Troy. Tradition offers basically two candidates for a homeland: Legend links all three places and goes even further, following two heroes with the same name: According to Virgil, the older Teucer was from Crete but left the island with a third part of its inhabitants during a great famine how many such stories….

They settled near a river, which was named Scamander after his father. Dionysius of Halicarnassus claims Teucer had gone to the Troad from Attica. Scamander or Xanthos was said to have been a river-god, a son of Oceanus. According to Homer , he fought on the side of the Trojans after Achilles insulted him. He was the personification of the river that flowed by Troy.

The Hellenes had set up their camp near its mouth, and their battles with the Trojans were fought on its plain. With the arrival of Dardanus there, Teucria was renamed as Dardania thence Dardenelles , and later Troad from king Tros. But these toponymic changes would not deter the Trojans to often call themselves Teucrians. The Judgement of Paris , by Enrique Simonet: Aphrodite , the winner in this ancient beauty pageant, stepping forward triumphantly naked, while Hera and Athena stay behind humiliated….

The younger Teucer or Teucrus was a son of king Telamon of Salamis , the island of Attica where the decisive naval battle of the Graeco-Persian Wars would be fought. He was half Trojan because his mother was a princess of Ilion. After all, war was a family affair — let alone for Teucer Jr! He was disowned, exiled, and set out to find a new home.

Teucer eventually joined the Phoenician king Belus of Tyre in his campaign against Cyprus, and when the island was seized, Belus handed it over to Teucer as a reward. He founded there the city of Salamis , named after his homeland. The initial consisted of Mycenaean traders around BCE. Apart from Salamis, Teucer is credited as a founder of other cities, as well. The legend seems to be based more on the conjecture that Greek traders might have arrived there in ancient times. Though legends appear for a certain reason, historians and archaeologists tend to agree that the initial settlement was probably formed when Gallaecia was integrated into the Roman Empire 1st century BCE.

Up to now, with the sole exception of Teucer attacking Cyprus in collaboration with the Phoenicians and representing the people who found refuge there well, at the expense of the locals , we have seen no Hellenes fighting alongside the Sea Peoples, but rather against them, in the Trojan War. It is what Sanford Holst already said in our previous Chronicle: The simplest and most reasonable quest is often the most marginal…. Whatever the case, the conditions favour such ventures: The Indies, on the other hand, appear not only distant but also exotic.

This is one of the reasons that such hybrids proliferate — and are… sold out! The aficionados may turn their backs on such projects and thus the musicians alienate themselves from their best allies, but this seems hardly to bother them. Perhaps because they no longer depend on aficionados; they depend on the venues and the companies distributing music and organizing concerts. It is in such cases that those who consider a hybrid to be a bastard are justified.

Unfortunately, it is true: It is a measure of the splendour of ancient Greek civilization. What is quite unexpected is to find such legends in books dealing with music see the previous Voyage 3. Indeed, there are so many myths, stories, and tales, about Heracles , Odysseus and, even more, Alexander! In the western Mediterranean, on the contrary, the whole picture is rather obscure; it lacks clarity. It was quite natural for me to focus my attention there for an extra reason: If the Greeks have also been involved in this give and take, so much the better….

Andalusia, the western end of our historical space, has received so many cultural elements from its eastern end, India, that the wide scope of exchange becomes more than obvious. Even prejudiced persons are obliged to recognize that the Gypsies — or at least some of their tribes — have an innate talent for music. They are quick though to assert that the Roma are not distinguished for their creative inspiration, but just for their skill in the execution of music.

Although self-contradictory, this view was expressed, in all seriousness, even from authoritative personalities, perhaps with good intentions. But the root of the problem goes far back: Music was not a lucrative — and hence respectable — occupation for centuries, when the only professional musicians around were Gypsies. Music as a profession was not a lucrative — and hence respectable — occupation for centuries, when the only professional musicians around were Gypsies. Racial purity means stagnation: Only racists would reject such important conclusions. But nationalism is also a problem, especially in an area like Eastern Europe as it was described above.

In contrast, they discovered that these folk melodies were based on pentatonic scales , similar to those in Asian folk traditions, such as those of Anatolia , Central Asia and Siberia. They belong to all without exception — and this is quite annoying to all Eastern European nationalists!

Gypsy school of violin and other strings in Hungary , by Janos Valentiny Here the cultural substratum is far richer in finds with the successive layers of several civilizations. It is obvious how inadequate the dilemma: There is Greek influence detected in flamenco! Most important, though seemingly paradoxical: Additionally, at that time both the Byzantine Empire and Hellas were not on the map, having lost already their independence…. That was the end result of the Crusades: Death and Apocalypse, by Hieronymus Bosch. The dilemma was clear-cut: Most Arabs and Jews the Gypsies had no… address and it was difficult to track them down!

Others mainly Jews, not Moors who found themselves in a familiar environment in the Maghreb chose to emigrate and ended up in the lands that until recently were Byzantine but had already passed under the control of the Ottomans — inter alia, in Thessalonica. Flamenco was born in such circumstances from these fugitives. But where were the Greeks? And how did they manage — being absent and from afar — to exert their influence? There can be only one answer: El jaleo , by John Singer Sargent An eristic could possibly dismiss scornfully Christian Scholze.

His view, however, is not new-fangled.

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It is shared by most musicologists who say more or less the same. The editors of the Classic CD magazine e. This chapter, Origin and Background, ends up with the etymology of flamenco: Dismissing several theories about the origin of the word, rather picturesque e.

Flemish , flamingo , flame, etc , b Pohren presents the most credible: The next year he helped Falla in the organization of the Concurso de Cante Jondo held in Granada on 13 and 14 of June with a memorable series of performances held at the Alhambra. Cante jondo or grande deep, great song is the most breathtaking of the flamenco forms , the most authentic and pure and, in the interwar period, the most marginalized.

The other two forms — cante inter medio and chico intermediate and small — were considered as rather vulgarized forms, a point of view perhaps corresponding to the realities of the interwar period Lorca will soon present his own well-grounded explanation. To promote the Concurso, Falla wrote an essay, El cante jondo canto primitivo andaluz , in which he presented the results of his own research indicating that the primary foreign influences contributing to the origins of flamenco, music and dance, were three: Byzantine ecclesiastical music coming from the eastern Mediterranean; Moorish music from North Africa and Arabia; and especially that distinct music of India and its rhythms , brought by gitanos, who began arriving in Spain more than five hundred years ago.

Lorca, on his part, gave a lecture on 19 February Citing Falla, he also put forward these three historical events that shaped jondo: Indeed, flamenco was impossible to be born in India; but, without the Roma, not even in Andalusia; just like rebetiko was impossible to be born in Asia Minor; but, without the Anatolian refugees, not even in Greece; or just like the blues was impossible to be born in Africa; but, without the black slaves, not even in America.

If this is true about the blues, an almost exclusively black music, you can imagine how much more relevant it is in the cases of flamenco and rebetiko where two locals became leading figures: Flamenco was impossible to be born in India; but without the Roma not even in Andalusia. Rebetiko was impossible to be born in Asia Minor; but without the Anatolians not even in Greece. Blues was impossible to be born in Africa; but without the blacks not even in America. Rebet, etching by Tassos. We can now enjoy their sparkling beauty thanks to the Roma, the Anatolians and the black Africans — those that played the role of a catalyst in the processing and refinement of these diamonds of the Orphean art — who, nevertheless, suffered tremendously.

Of course, some people had to play the role of the villains. For the Gypsies, among many others, the villain was Timur. For the Anatolians, it was Kemal. Here we lose count! According to Falla, it is the archetype of cante jondo, as Lorca defined it in , in another of his lectures, entitled Architecture of Cante Jondo. I quote from his lecture of Hence we can also speak of siguiriya griega , or bizantina , not only indiana , or gitana!

But the findings of this triad Pedrell, Falla and Lorca go far beyond the relatively recent past, to prehistoric times. Manuel de Falla in action. Let us not forget that the ancient drama was all in verse. This technique enhanced the dramatic appeal of the text. Roman sarcophagus with scenes of Bacchus depicting various ancient instruments: Bull Worship and Bullfighting. Almost every word is a lie: Fado has been proclaimed as Intangible Cultural Heritage. Rebetiko , too, after several years: It is the starting point of the first chapter Identity and Origins , just after the preliminaries about fado: These homonymous toponyms are quite strange, indeed.

Colchis , Iberia and Albania. The Amazons were further north. Among the cultural characteristics the Greeks bequeathed to Iberia the Iberian Peninsula , the Portuguese researcher, writer and poet points out the Moeras: The foreigners, you see, attribute to Greeks cultural characteristics that the latter claim they are due to years of Ottoman yoke….

Among others, they say, he founded and walled Lisbon see Chronicle Olissipo-Lisboa with the port on the Tagus in the 16th century. Odysseus and Calypso with… Abidis? Consequently, Calypso was not a nymph on the Isle of Ogygia , as Homer says. It is assumed that Ogygia must have been nearby the Pillars of Heracles , since Odysseus had to travel for 18 days in an easterly direction to reach Scheria , the Phaeacian island, which many identify with Corfu.

Although it is not an island now, it may have been one in the days of Homer. But in his long list, he includes no Abidis, Habis, or what. Odysseus had three sons from Penelope , one from the daughter of Thoas the Aetolian , eight sons and a daughter from Circe , two sons from Calypso, one from Callidice , the queen of Thesprotia , whom he later married, and another from Euippe , daughter of Tyrimmas , king of Dodona in Epirus.

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Circe, by Charles Gumery. Finally, only poor Odysseus was enveloped by murky darkness! The father of Italian poetry presents a traditional variation of the Homeric version, in which Odysseus himself says that he never returned to Ithaca. Then a tornado had the ship spin three times and sink. They all drowned there. Sailing to Rio de Janeiro! Statue of Viriato in Zamora: The greatest Lusitanian hero in the resistance against the Romans was killed with treachery. When his assassins asked the Romans for their payment, the latter answered: The only known evidence of transparency veil.

A common cultural characteristic of the Cretans and the peoples of Iberia was bull worship and Bullfighting: Creto-Iberian ties due to Minoan thalassocracy in the Mediterranean.

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A common cultural characteristic was bull worship and bullfifhting. Taurocathapsia bull-leaping , Minoan fresco. Minoan Cretan Thalassocracy h. Apart from bullfighting on horseback, there was also the pega — from the verb pegar, which means catch, seize … the bull by the horns!

In one kind of pegas, the so-called forcado was not only completely unarmed, but had nothing to fool the attacking bull e. Reconstruction of a relief fresco of a bull by Arthur Evans at the northern Propylaea of Knossos. There were more forcados, usually eight, as assistants in the pega to master the bull. It is the picture we have from the Minoan bull-leaping in an extant fresco of Taurocathapsia dating back to the 15th century BCE. Arriving at the other side of the Mediterranean, we can find the earliest known description of such a bullfight in the Epic of Gilgamesh , the legendary hero of Mesopotamia , whose name became associated with his futile struggle to obtain immortality.

The epic, dating back to ca BCE, describes how the hero and his companion, Enkidu , kill the Celestial Bull that the goddess Ishtar has sent to punish Gilgamesh for spurning her advances: The recortadores competed at dodging and leaping over bulls without cape or sword. Some used a long pole to literally pole-vault over the charging animal, which was not restrained by any guiding rope or similar safety device. The recortes were common in the 19th century. Etchings by painter Francisco Goya depict these events. The participants tried to leap onto a bull, reaching for the money packets tied to its horns as a prize.

The event has been depicted in rock art dated at least to the 3rd century BCE. Navegando para o Rio de Janeiro! Testemunho para debate de Michales Loukovikas. Flamenco de Hyatt Moore: E deixaram uma literatura maravilhosa! Chipre por exemplo estava cheio de cobre e o nome desta ilha tem origem nesta palavra. Safo e Alcaeu , de Lawrence Alma-Tadema. A Conquista de Lisboa, de Roque Gameiro Nessa altura, um tornado afundou o seu barco…. Leave a comment Interlude. Music and Poetry in the Portuguese Language. Federal University of Rio de Janeiro May

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