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Thus, little seed set is expected since pollen rapidly loses its viability. Although crossings between species of the genus Saccharum with other closely related species have been suggested to occur in the wild Grassl ; Daniels and Roach, , wild hybridization has not been reported with current sugarcane varieties. Hybridization among sugarcane species and Erianthus sect. However, genetic transfer among commercial hybrids and these ancestral species, if existent, are much lower under natural conditions Bonnett et al.
In addition, there is no data on the biology of the wild Brazilian Saccharum species such as S. The Saccharum species that gave rise to commercial sugarcane varieties S. In Brazil, these species exist only in germplasm collections which are used in sugarcane breeding programs. Under breeding station conditions, they can flower synchronously and successfully hybridize with modern varieties. However, lateral transfer of genes among modern sugarcane hybrids and those species is not expected to occur under natural Brazilian environmental conditions.
The first step towards establishing a commercial sugarcane field is the production of vegetative planting material from the desired commercial variety under approved sanitary conditions at nurseries. To assure the starting material is disease-free, it is common practice that the stalks to be used as planting material are either exposed to thermotherapy a hot water treatment to control systemic bacterial infections such as ratoon stunting disease , or they are obtained aseptically through meristem culture free of bacteria and viruses , or from a combination of methods.
Essentially, there are three types of nurseries differing primarily in size and generations removed from initial asepsis:. Commercial plantations are generally established using time proven conventional methods. Rows are spaced at distances varying from 0. Stalks are distributed in furrows in pairs with the base of one stalk paired against the upper part of the other, i. After the stalks are distributed in the furrow, they are sectioned into 2 to 3-node seed pieces to interrupt apical dominance that exists in the intact stalk.
In soils known to be infested by insect pests or nematodes, pesticides are applied over the cuttings in the furrows. In Brazil, the use of irrigation in commercial sugarcane fields is generally not necessary, contributing to low production costs. Currently, as marginal production areas, primarily drier areas with inadequate rainfall, are added to the sugarcane industry through crop expansion, drought tolerance is seen as an increasingly important trait for sugarcane varieties Pires et al. When the crop begins to grow, the most important agronomic practice is weed control.
Once an optimal plant stand is established, the major concern is to employ practices to insure good crop development to achieve good maturation, i. Proper practices assure optimization of the harvesting-milling operations and, consequently, overall economic return. This aim is achieved by mills cultivating a range of varieties having different soil nutrient requirements, rates of maturation and reliable disease resistance. In Brazil, sugarcane harvesting is either semi-mechanized or completely mechanized. In the first case, the cane is harvested manually, but it is loaded onto trucks mechanically; in the second case, the cane is harvested by machines that load it directly onto trucks.
Sugarcane is a semiperennial crop in commercial fields. It has to be replanted approximately every three to six harvests when grown under the rainfed conditions of Brazil. Replanting is required because of declining yields due to crop and soil damage caused by the heavy traffic of machines and trucks over the stumps during harvesting. In addition, there could be a progressive accumulation over time of pathogens in the sugarcane crop, some of which reduce stand population while others impair plant growth. There may also be a genetic component contributing to yield decline because most of the commercial cultivars have been selected to produce well only for the first three to four cultivation cycles.
The overall result is a decrease in year-over-year productivity, which can reach economically unfeasible levels and the need to replant the field Matsuoka et al. There are two basic sugarcane production cycles. The plant-cane cycle starts with planting and ends after the first harvest. The ratoon, or ratoon-cane, cycle starts after the harvest of the plant cane and continues with successive ratoon crops until field renewal Fig. The complete cycle of a sugarcane field lasts either four or five seasons, after which time the crop is renewed. Eradication of the crop after it has become economically unfeasible is performed by ploughing it under and harrowing the soil, which is often preceded by the application of a systemic herbicide.
The most important sugarcane insect pests in Brazil are the sugarcane borers Diatraea saccharalis and Diatraea flavipennella , the giant sugarcane borer Telchin licus , spittlebugs Mahanarva fimbriolata and Mahanarva posticata , termites different genera , the migdolus beetle Migdolus fryanus , the sugarcane weevil Sphenophorus levis and herbivorous ants Atta spp. Both species construct galleries in the stalks, leading to less biomass and sugar production, and an increase in fungal infections and juice contamination.
These sugarcane borers are mainly controlled by massive release of the parasitoid Cotesia flavipes , which is normally reared in labs at the various mills. Sugarcane borers are also controlled, although by a lesser extent, by the release of the parasitic wasp Trichogramma galloi. Currently there is strong evidence that the sugarcane borer population has been increasing due to the expansion of cane into new areas, the cultivation of susceptible varieties, and the failure to use biological control.
The increase in borer populations has been causing an increase in the use of pesticides to control these insects Dinardo-Miranda, a. The giant sugarcane borer T. Biological and chemical control mechanisms against T. The root froghopper M. Crop damage is caused by the young insect nymph , which sucks water and nutrients from plant roots and injects toxins into them, leading to a decrease in root function and, consequently, a loss of productivity. Release of the fungus Metarhizium anisopliae results in good biological control, which can be complemented or replaced by pesticide spraying Dinardo-Miranda, a.
The leaf spittlebug M. There are many species of termites that attack sugarcane in the the country. Among these species, H. These underground insects attack the stalks used for planting, leading to low bud germination and the need for replanting Dinardo-Miranda, a. Farmers control termites by spraying pesticides over the stalks in the furrow during planting. The migdolus beetle Migdolus fryanus is a native Brazilian insect that attacks the roots of many crops, including sugarcane, coffee, eucalyptus and beans Bento et al. The insect can destroy the root system, leading to an early need for field replanting.
Recently, the use of pheromone traps has been shown to be very promising for controlling this pest Nakano et al. The sugarcane weevil Sphenophorus levis is another beetle that attacks the sugarcane root system, leading to damage similar to that caused by the migdolus beetle. Consequently, one of the more effective control practices for this pest is to avoid planting cane that is harvested from infected areas. Ants that behave as pests in the sugarcane crop belong to the genera Atta and Acromyrmex.
The species Atta bisphaerica and Atta capiguara cause most of the losses, but Atta sexdens and Atta laevigata also cause damage.
Studies have shown that the ants of one anthill can reduce sugarcane productivity by 3. Control of these pests is accomplished using pesticides that must be applied very carefully because the pesticides could kill predator ants that are beneficial to the crop. Many species of nematodes are found in association with sugarcane, but in Brazil, most of the damage is caused by five species: Meloidogyne incognita , Meloidogyne javanica , Pratylenchus zeae , Pratylenchus brachyurus and Helycotylenchus dihystera.
These nematodes are mainly controlled with chemical pesticides because nematode-resistant varieties have not been developed in the Brazilian sugarcane breeding programs Dinardo-Miranda, b. It is also possible to use nematocides in ratoon cycles, but the control of nematodes on ratoons is not as effective Dinardo-Miranda, b. Registered products to control insects and nematodes in sugarcane fields in Brazil.
In addition to insects that act as pests, sugarcane fields contain other associated insects with different biological functions, which comprise the sugarcane insect fauna entomofauna. There have been several sugarcane entomofauna studies aimed at identifying the impact of sugarcane field burning on the associated insect crop population. However, identifying the risks to the insect fauna of adopting specific technologies, such as new agrochemicals and genetically modified cultivars for crop improvement requires detailed analyses of the individual species that are most important and meaningful for monitoring Romeis et al.
Species selection must be based on the biological functions of the insects, their abundance and their economic importance. Other, less objective criteria such aesthetic value, cultural value and species at risk, may also be used Romeis et al. Although sugarcane is a vigorous plant, the crop suffers from weed competition in its initial development stages. The most detrimental weed species are in the Poaceae and Cyperaceae families, but morning glory species may also interfere by coiling around the sugarcane plants, reducing leaf unfurling to decrease the photosynthetic area and slowing mechanical harvesting.
In most sugarcane production areas of the world, herbicide use chemical control is the most common way to control sugarcane weeds. List of common weeds occurring in Brazilian sugarcane fields. Registered products to control weeds in sugarcane fields in Brazil. Most commercial sugarcane varieties are genetically resistant to most sugarcane diseases. In addition to genetic resistance, use of pathogen-free planting material is commonly used to avoid spreading of diseases.
The Brazilian sugarcane industry does not usually control sugarcane diseases in commercial fields, but recently, coinciding with the first detection of the Orange rust Puccinia kuehnii in the country, the Agriculture Department has registered a product azoxystrobin and ketoconazole to control fungal disesases at sugarcane fields Santos, ; Agrofit, Additionally, the Triazole fungicides triadimefon and triadimenol are registered to treat sugarcane stalks before planting to prevent smut contamination caused by Ustilago scitaminea AGROFIT Sugarcane smut disease is also contolled by destroying contaminated plants in the field roguing when varieties having intermediate resistance to the pathogen are planted.
List of common diseases occurring at Brazilian sugarcane fields. Dinardo-Miranda a ; Dinardo-Miranda b ; Almeida Emerging data indicates that sugarcane could be the best crop for the production of renewable energy, which could reduce some effects of global warming caused by the use of fossil fuels Buckeridge, The impact of sugarcane on the environment might be reduced by adopting environmentally friendly agricultural practices such as the elimination of burning before harvest, modifying other practices for a reduction in diesel-driven transportation and a reduction in the use of oil-based fertilizers Ometto et al.
During this period, sugarcane expansion occurred in areas that were originally covered with Atlantic Rain Forest, but which were already being used for pastures and annual crops. The current rapid expansion of sugarcane into new areas that have never been used to grow the crop raises questions about sustainability, particularly in those areas of the cerrado biome that are already threatened by the expansion of other crops Rodrigues and Ortiz, This recent concern about the potential environmental impacts of crops has encouraged government agencies to promote studies to establish zones for planting sugarcane and to regulate how expansion will take place to avoid expansion into protected areas.
This zoning proposal was recently approved and will allow the Brazilian Government to use Climatic Risk Zoning as a tool for the establishment of a sustainable sugarcane agribusiness in the country Embrapa, Hitorically, the sugarcane has been burned prior to harvest as a means to facilitate and thus reduce the costs for harvest and hauling of cane, whether harvested by hand or by machine.
In addition, burning of the crop generally increased recovery of the sucrose contained in the plant. This protocol established several environmental principles and technical guidelines to be observed by the sugarcane industry. As a result of continuous breeding and selection for agronomic traits of value, sugarcane has lost the competitiveness or invasiveness of the original species; modern cultivars have largely lost the ability to persist in non-agricultural habitats and only poorly perpetuate without human assistance Holm et al.
Sugarcane hybrid cultivars do not possess true rhizomes or produce vigorous seedlings. It is possible to find leftover stools in cultivated areas, but there is no indication that these stools will perpetuate, and there is even less evidence that they have any invasive capacity. It is possible that if ratoons are not properly eradicated at the end of a cultivation cycle, they can regrow and become volunteer plants in the next crop.
However, since the ratoons do not possess the ability to spread, they remain as isolated stools in the new crop. Some species from which modern sugarcane hybrids are derived are classified as weeds. It is important to emphasize that the rhizomatous nature of S. The other species of the Saccharum complex S. Among other genera of the Saccharum complex Miscanthus , Narenga and Sclerostachia , only Miscanthus and Narenga represent species classified as having weed potential GCW, The genus Miscanthus contains five species that have been reported as having weed potential in some parts of the world: There are other Saccharum species, which are not involved in the origin of sugarcane hybrids, that have also been recorded as having weed potential in some parts of the world, including: After more than five centuries of sugarcane cultivation in Brazil, there is no evidence that this crop presents any traits that favor persistence and invasibility and there is no evidence of dispersion outside of agricultural environments.
Commercial propagation is vegetative, and seedlings from breeding programs lack vigor. As stated previously, no species that were involved in the origin of sugarcane hybrids are native to Brazil, but some species of Saccharum did originate in this country. Among those species, only S. The plant is not consumed by cattle, thus allowing it to occupy areas that might otherwise be occupied by more desirable species. There are no reports of the presence of Narenga species in Brazil, but there have been reports of the introduction of Miscanthus species into the country for their ornamental potential Lorenzi and Sousa ; Bastos, Nothing is known about how these introduced species will behave in the Brazilian environment.
Although some of them are already recorded as weeds in other countries, there have been no reports of their occurrence as weeds in Brazil GCW, ; Lorenzi, Unlike most crops, modern sugarcane varieties are propagated vegetatively, and seeds are not disseminated in agricultural areas. As a consequence, the sexual reproduction of sugarcane has been inadequately studied; most information related to this field has come from breeders.
There have been virtually no studies on the fertility and longevity of seeds produced in commercial fields or on their germination responses to environmental variables. However, sugarcane breeders invest great effort to obtain and preserve germinability of seed produced in their breeding programs.
If these seeds fall onto the ground and encounter high humidity conditions, they may germinate to produce new plants. However, due to heavy competition with the existing sugarcane, weeds, the actions of pathogenic agents and predators in the non- cultivated areas, or herbicides and weeding in the cultivated areas, these volunteer plants do not survive for long periods of time. If ratoons are not properly eradicated, they can regrow in the next crop, behaving as a source of volunteer plants, but there has been no reported case of volunteers spreading throughout the field.
However, to avoid the presence of volunteer plants, the application of herbicides during the eradication phase is highly recommended.
Sugarcane has a long history of safe use as a food for humans and animal feed. It is commercially cultivated for use as a source of sucrose. Its byproducts are commonly used as components of ruminant feeds: The syrup is also used as a sugar substitute in food. These products are practically free of any contamination by other organic molecules Leme Junior and Borges, Sucrose is a molecule with an extensive history of human consumption.
It is consumed as a sweetener and energy source and is classified as non-toxic to humans, with an LD 50 in rats of Although consumption of standard doses of sucrose has always been considered safe, excessive oral consumption of sucrose may cause gastrointestinal problems. While there is no evidence of a direct correlation between sucrose consumption and toxicity, many studies suggest that average consumption should be reduced due to a possible association with health problems such as cardiovascular diseases, type II diabetes, obesity and hypertension Howard and Wylie-Rosett, In addition, the relationship between sucrose consumption and an increased risk of developing dental cavities has been established Rugg-Gunn and Murray, ; Sreebny, The consumption of ethanol in alcoholic beverages may also be harmful to human health.
Ethanol is considered toxic to humans if it is consumed in high doses and inhalation for a long period of time may provoke coughing, respiratory insufficiency, dizziness and intoxication. Eye contact may cause severe irritation. The excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages causes damage to practically all organs, particularly the liver, kidneys and central nervous system. The acute effects of ethanol ingestion range from dizziness and intoxication to alcoholic coma and death. Excessive consumption of alcoholic beverages during pregnancy is associated with the induction of fetal alcohol syndrome in the offspring and the occurrence of low weight and asphyxia at birth, among other problems Sigma-Aldrich, b.
Sugarcane pollen, like that of many other plants, has allergenic potential and may cause immunological hypersensitivity in humans who come into contact with it through the respiratory tract. In an allergy skin test conducted in India by Chakraborty et al. The objective of industrial sugarcane processing is to obtain highly purified sugar and ethanol. The process involves pressing of the sugarcane to obtain juice, which goes through several phases of purification and concentration, followed by crystallization in the case of sugar production or fermentation and distillation in the case of ethanol production.
Sucrose and ethanol, which are pure and chemically defined substances, are obtained at the conclusion of both processes. The byproducts are vinasse also called vinhoto and bagasse biomass. Ethanol Ethyl alcohol, or ethanol, is a flammable liquid substance that is obtained through the distillation of fermented sugars. The main substrate for ethanol production from sugarcane is the sucrose contained in the juice. This product may be used directly as transportation fuel or may be dehydrated, generating anhydrous ethanol. According to Brazilian Law No.
Sugar The raw sugar obtained directly from sugarcane processing consists of Refined white sugar is obtained by dissolving raw sugar and removing the insoluble material and natural colorants through physical processes Quast, After this additional purification step, the sucrose content of refined white sugar reaches In some countries of the European Union, Australia, Mexico, Canada, the United States and Japan, sugar produced from glyphosate and gluphosinate resistant, genetically modified sugarbeets has already been approved for human consumption.
In those cases, the composition analysis of the sugarbeet roots detected negligible amount of total protein and the analysis of refined sugar were not able to detect heterologous protein at the final product CERA Vinasse Vinasse is a residue of industrial sugarcane processing that consists of suspended solids and organic and mineral substances, mainly potassium Almeida, Orlando Filho presented options for the use of vinasse that include: Despite the potential diversity of uses, vinasse is almost solely used in Brazil as a fertilizer in fields surrounding ethanol-producing mills.
Filter cake Filter cake is a byproduct of industrial sugarcane processing that is obtained from the rotation filters after residual sucrose is extracted from the sugar production leftover sludge. Filter cake composition is variable, but in general, the residue is rich in minerals nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and sulfur and organic matter, mainly proteins and lipids.
This residue is commonly used as a fertilizer or in animal feed Nardin, ; Diaz et al. Biomass The bagasse obtained after sugarcane pressing consists of lignocellulosic biomass. In the mills, this byproduct of sugarcane processing is burned to generate energy Copersucar, Currently, this process is so efficient that mills generate excess electric energy that is added to the grid, providing electrical energy to nearby cities, especially during the dry season, when hydroelectric plants have difficulty in operating at full capacity due to the low water levels in rivers.
Bagasse may also be used as a raw material for ethanol production through acid or enzymatic hydrolysis, where cellulose and hemicellulose fractions can be converted into hexoses and pentoses. After a purification process, the mixture can be fermented to produce ethanol.
However, this technology is still under development, and its economic feasibility has yet to be proven. According to a survey conducted by Martinelli et al. Rapadura, muscovado sugar, and sugarcane syrup are the main products of the artisanal sugarcane production system. These speciality products are produced on small farms that are characterized by their low technology levels and intensive use of labor. Since there is little boutique market integration, these products are sold in local markets, and their processing is simplified, as shown in Fig. Rapadura Jaggery Rapadura is the Portuguese word for jaggery, a concentrated product of sugarcane juice without the separation of molasses from the crystals whose color can vary from golden to dark brown.
It is a whole, unrefined sweetener that can be used in the same way as sugar with the additional flavor of molasses. The consumption of this product is concentrated in the rural areas of Brazil, mostly in the northeastern region where it is considered part of the cultural identity of the northeastern population Coutinho, Data collected by FAO Borray, showed that jaggery is produced in approximately 30 countries. Muscovado Sugar Muscovado sugar production is similar to that of jaggery but with a process to achieve higher concentrations of soluble solids Fig.
Thus, the muscovado sugar market has shrunk with a threat to the continuity of its production. The vitamin content is not significant, snce vitamins are destroyed by heat Chaves et al. It is an excellent source of energy and minerals, and because of its high iron level, it is considered an anti-anemic product. It has many uses in human diets depending on the region of Brazil in which it is being used Chaves et al.
Unprocessed sugarcane is used as human food and animal feed. As a food item, sugarcane may be consumed in natura or as juice garapa. In natura consumption is common in Brazilian rural areas, but juice consumption is much more common.
The result of the in vitro test confirmed the viability of A. In vivo analysis revealed no difference in the number of eggs per gram between treated and control groups, probably because of the low crowding of the corrals, the insufficient amount and interval time of conidial supplying, permitting dispersal and migration of the larvae in the pasture.
However, helminths recovered at autopsy from the tracer animals showed that A. Despite the inconclusiveness of the results, A. A cada 14 dias, durante dias, foram colhidas amostras de fezes diretamente do reto de cada animal. Os resultados do teste in vitro Tabela 1 demonstraram que o fungo A. Segundo Ciordia et al.
Seasonal variations in populations of infective larvae on pasture and nematode faecal egg output in sheep. Biological control of bovine gastrointestinal nematode parasites in Southeastern Brazil by the nematode-trapping fungus Arthrobotrys robusta. Control of bovine gastrointestinal nematode parasites using pellets of the nematode-trapping fungus Monacrosporium thaumasium. Passage of nematode-trapping fungi through the gastrointestinal tract of calves.
Veterinarski Arhiv , v. Within a week the young can eat grass, but will continue to suckle - from any female in the group - until weaned at about 16 weeks. Youngsters will form a group within the main group. To prevent this, they may roll in mud to protect their skin from the sun. Capybara are semi-aquatic mammals[13] found wild in much of South America including Panama, Costa Rica, Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia, Venezuela, Brazil, Argentina, Guyana, Suriname, French Guyana, Uruguay, Peru, and Paraguay[10] in densely forested areas near bodies of water, such as lakes, rivers, swamps, ponds and marshes,[11] as well as flooded savannah and along rivers in tropical forest.
Though it has been erroneously stated that a population of capybara existed in the River Arno in Florence, Italy, this was determined to be the nutria or coypu, Myocastor coypus a considerably smaller South American aquatic rodent with a similar appearance.
Capybara is an herbivore, grazing mainly on grasses and aquatic plants,[5][11] as well as fruit and tree bark. Capybaras are coprophagous, meaning they eat their own faeces as a source of bacterial gut flora and in order to help digest the cellulose in the grass that forms their normal diet and extract the maximum protein from their food. Additionally, they may regurgitate food to masticate the food again, similar to cud-chewing by a cow. Capybaras are social animals, usually found in groups, between 10 and 30 though larger groups of up to sometimes can be formed ,[15] controlled by a dominant male[11] who will have a prominent scent gland on his nose[15] used for smearing his scent on the grasses in his territory.
Capybaras are excellent swimmers and can survive completely underwater for up to five minutes,[11] an ability they will use to evade predators. During midday, as temperatures increase, Capybaras wallow in water to keep cool and then graze in late afternoons and early evenings.
They sleep little, usually dozing off and on throughout the day and grazing into and through the night. They have a lifespan of 4—8 years in the wild[citation needed] but average a life less than four years as they are "a favourite food of jaguar, puma, ocelot, eagle and caiman". Capybara are not on the IUCN list[9] and therefore not considered a threatened species; their population is stable through most of their South American ranges, though in some areas hunting has reduced their numbers.
Capybaras are hunted for their meat and pelts in some areas,[7] and otherwise killed by humans who see their grazing as competition for livestock. The skins are particularly prized for making fine gloves because of its unusual characteristic of stretching in just one direction.
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Their survival is aided by their ability to breed rapidly. Capybaras can be found in many areas in zoos and parks,[8][11][13][19][20][21][22][23] sometimes allowed to roam freely and may live for 12 years in captivity. Capybaras are gentle and will usually allow humans to pet and hand-feed them. Capybara skin is tough, and thus in some areas where capybaras are wild, they are hunted for meat and their skin, which is turned into a high-quality leather,[10] while some ranchers hunt them for fear of the competition for grazing. The meat is said to look and taste like pork.