Entwicklung im Erwachsenenalter - Kurzvortrag mit Thesenpapier (German Edition)

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The kinesic 1 Translated from Romanian into English: Eye behavior includes eye movement, eye contact, gaze aversion, and pupil dilatation and constriction. This code includes influential nonverbal cues which are non-movement bound, i. Olfactic cues deal with how smell or odor communicates. This code includes the sounds of the voice as well as silences. This includes how someone communicates through changes in speaking rate, volume, voice quality and pitch, accents, pauses, and hesitations. Also included are silence and the meanings attributed to it.

Sometimes silence communicates a message more loudly than words ever could. Time and Place Codes. These refer to the larger context in which communication occurs. Communication through time chronemics includes how people use and perceive time. Time preferences, punctuality, and personal perceptions of time are some of the many chronemic factors.

Environmental cues proxemics refer to elements that impinge on the human relationship, but which are not directly a part of it. They include factors such as architectural design, interior decorating, color, noise, furniture arrangement, and so on. Research methodology and hypotheses The theoretical framework the present paper relies on is an adapted form of the form-functional approach to language Berman and Slobin, , according to which, each form in our case a non-verbal one is associated with a certain communicative function.

The non-verbal forms that will be analysed are chronemics, proxemics, appearance with focus on clothing , artifacts presents , and rituals. The research questions that guided me in the analysis are the following: A picture of the 18th century diplomatic encounters Before embarking on the analysis proper, a short presentation of the book would be appropriate at this point.

This journey is full of adventures and discoveries of a world which the Persians had very little information about, adventures which are nicely narrated by Hajji Baba. The book abounds in examples of cultural differences in non-verbal communication, but due to reasons of space, I have selected to analyse only those fragments related to diplomacy, following, at the same time, the stipulations in the Procedure Regarding the Negotiating and Mediating Techniques employed in a military institution Gheorghe et al Making a good first impression, one of the main functions of verbal communication, implies the way in which people introduce themselves.

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But the manner of introducing the members of the delegations varies from culture to culture. The Persian ambassador waited for some time for an equally elaborate response to the compliment he paid the English people, but was appalled when the English governor simply made a remark about the weather i. This brought about a wave of criticisms of the Frank governor who was considered to speak worse than a Persian camel-driver. The whole incident is in total disagreement with the negotiation procedure see Gheorghe et al But since the Persians and the British people might have been at the beginning of their exchanges of all kinds, we have to be mild on both of them.

One element pertaining to the setting is the time of the encounter. But we have to be aware of the fact that various cultures have different perceptions of time. Thus, once the time of the meeting has been decided upon, the English people will stick to it, whereas for the Persians this is not a must, as illustrated below. Being used to their chronemic habits, according to which a delay would not upset anyone, the Persians were very surprised to see their mehmandar i.

The sun is not so hot here as in our country, requiring us to leave our resting-place so early! The Muslims are of the opinion that guests should be given plenty of time to get accommodated to the new environment. In the Western world, punctuality is the rule and disobeying it may be insulting. Also obvious is the fact that the Eastern time-system lacks synthesising3: Depending on the level importance of the diplomatic encounters, it might happen that before the discussions or negotiations proper in a specific location, the host organizes a ceremonial reception for the guests upon their arrival.

But the situation was different in the 18th century, when the diplomatic encounters were not as frequent as they are at present. An illustration of the ceremonial reception offered by the Franks to their Persian guests and the disappointment caused by it is illustrated below. The shah of England would receive the embassy ere a week has elapsed; Mirza Firouz then made inquiries as to the manner in which the ceremony was to be performed; to which the mehmandar answered that he would be received with the same honours as ambassadors from other powers. You will proceed in your carriage to the palace.

The Persian elchi ambassador was outraged by this kind of reception and promised that if indeed this was the way he was to meet the English king, he would simply go alone to the palace, hand the king the credentials and leave the country. Whenever people whose time systems lack this isolate come in touch with people whose time systems do have it, they experience great difficulty. If we compare the two kinds of reception, we realize that the Persian one is more pompous, more colourful and cheerful, but also more costly. At first sight, we may have the impression that it is this abundance of details that the Persian ambassador is looking for, but this is not true.

Most probably, the Persian ambassador wanted to enjoy his moment of glory, away from the shadow of the shah he represented, and the thought of his dream being spoilt made him rebel against the kind of reception the English king intended for him. Another element that is part of non-verbal communication and that is present in the diplomatic document mentioned above is the place where the encounter will take place, more specifically the seating arrangement 4 Footnote provided by J.

While for the English people of the 18th century this was of minor importance, for the Persians the seating hierarchy is something that must be strictly obeyed. The Persians were not used to the chairs; for them, the most appropriate way to sit was on the ground, and when they discovered a number of types of chairs in the house that had been allotted to them by the English king, they felt lost: One important aspect revealed by this short fragment is the fact that when they sit on the ground, the Muslims never show the soles of their feet, as this is an insult towards the persons around.

That is why the soles need to be hidden from eye-sight. Everything Persian seems to be better than what the Franks had. This holds true even for the master of ceremonies, an important figure in any diplomatic encounter. The fragment below contrasts the Persian and the English masters of ceremony, in the detriment of the latter. What a difference between the two individuals. His dress and manners are unrivalled; 5 Footnote provided by James Morier: He is altogether a fine specimen of a son of Iran.

What this and other fragments in the book shows, is that the two diplomatic parties are not perceived by the reader to be on equal footing, as they should be, according to the stipulation in the negotiation procedure which shows that each party should have equal authority and that each should show genuine objectivity and respect for their opponents Gheorghe et al, p. One other provision in the document mentioned above regards clothing.

According to a stipulation in it, people taking part in an official meeting should be dressed properly7. What this fragment shows is that indeed the English courtiers dressed properly for the event, only that their dress code seems to be in disagreement with that of the Persians, whose ceremonial garments are richly adorned.

In preparing himself for the meeting with the English king, the Persian ambassador adorned himself according to the etiquette of his country. Hajji Baba nicely depicts the image of his ambassador: The rich adornment of the Persian official clothes sometimes made them quite difficult to wear, especially for a person belonging to a different culture.

An example of such clothes is presented at the beginning of the book, when Hajji Baba was asked by the shah prior to the departure to England to make: And this is what one of the dresses looked like: In speaking about the appropriate clothing, one other important element in diplomatic encounters has been introduced, namely small presents. It is customary though not specified anywhere in official documents for delegation members to offer their counterparts various objects typical of their country.

Thus, the Persians considered it appropriate to send presents both to the queen and the king of England, whereas in Britain it was only the queen who sent her Persian counterpart a present. But when finding out what presents have been exchanged, one realizes how useless and inappropriate 58 they were. The most intriguing element in this list of presents seems to be the rings for the toes: Nor would she know the use of khennah, employed since antiquity to dye skin, hair or fingernails.

A Westerner could easily imagine the disappointment of the English king on seeing the presents. First, as regards the portrait, the English kings would hang on the walls of their castles and palaces portraits of themselves or of their ancestors, but not those of foreigners. Though the English vizier who was to inspect all the Persian presents that he was supposed to take to England by ship pointed out that some of them were really inappropriate as was the case of horses or slaves, for instance , he had to accept most of them because the refusal of a present in Persia is always 59 considered an affront and between crowned heads it is a signal of warlike intentions.

One final aspect of non-verbal communication that has certain relevance is related to food and drinks. In most diplomatic meetings food and drinks are served. The encounter between the Persians and the English people made no exception to the rule, only that instead of strengthening the relations between the two parties, the dinner they had together seems to have produced some tension due to the different table manners.

The Persians use their hands to insert food into their mouth, something which the Franks find appalling, using instead cutlery and individual dishes, which the Persians express surprise at. The first idea is illustrated by the visit of the English vizier to the inn where the Persian ambassador and his suite were accommodated. Most probably the Persian guests felt offended, feeling that the English visitor considered them impure.

On the other hand, we can imagine the astonishment and disgust of the English vizier at the thought of having to share the spoon for drinking sherbet as well as the food in which all the people around introduced their hands. The Persians had their share of amazement when after having reached the English caravanserai inn , they were served dinner: Drinks are also sometimes served, but as we know, Muslims are not allowed to drink alcohol, so the other option in official encounters is coffee.

But while this drink had been with the Persians for quite some time, for the Franks of the 18th century it was completely unknown. Moreover, the Muslims attribute a certain symbolism to the type of coffee they serve which the English people were completely unfamiliar with. The following fragment nicely illustrates the idea. He had only been treated to the common ceremony of sweet and bitter coffee; [ What the present analysis has hopefully demonstrated is that there were cultural differences between the Easterners and the Westerners of the 18th century at the level of all the non-verbal codes forms and in most of the cases such differences led to misinterpretations of the messages and thus, to feelings of uneasiness or even frustration.

This confirms the first two hypotheses indicated in chapter 4. Since the diplomatic encounter under investigation occurred at a time when people did not travel as extensively and as easily as in modern times, we may assume that they were less interested in cultural issues, and even less in cultural differences in non-verbal communication. This might be the reason why each of the parties involved very rarely made an attempt at understanding the beliefs, customs and rituals of their opponent. I am well aware that in time things have changed: Otherwise, as Bremeck Winston References 61 Berman, Ruth and Dan I.

Relating Events in Narrative. A Crosslinguistic Developmental Study. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. The development and teaching of a college course in intercultural communication. Readings in Intercultural Communication. An Advanced Resource Book. I, downloaded from http: Dinhobl, retrieved from http: Nonverbal Behavior and Communication.

Die kulturellen Grundlagen der Gesellschaft: Der Fall der Moderne. Traditional dichotomies of universality and culture-specificity of concepts, or semasiology versus onomasiology are addressed as a framework for a semantic typology of lexical innovations conversion, blending etc.

A model is then built on the English concept pickpocket and its lexemic representation since mid 14th century. The aim of the paper is to prove that diachronic cognitive onomasiology investigates the main strategies of verbalizing a concept here pickpocket in a cognitive framework, where the two types of relations combine to explain the lexical innovation process.

An introduction to semantic change As a historical entity, language can only be understood against the background of its development over time. Various extralinguistic factors combine to shape human cognition and experience into a dynamic, everchanging linguistic manifestation. Therefore, the revealing paths followed by linguistic change can be identified and investigated according to the specific parameters of a given community of speakers. Similar to other segments of the language, the study of semantics took its origin in the investigation of meaning and lexical change.

The literature in meaning change offers more than years of extensive classificatory work, where the large-scale theories of meaning change are supplemented by 63 specialized investigations into single patterns of change, such as lexical fields, metaphor, metonymy, grammaticalization and historical pragmatics.

In this context, three broad types of change can be distinguished, which lead to lexical and meaning change: Towards a diachronic cognitive onomasiology Linguist Andreas Blank argues that meaning reflects our conceptualization of the world, and that change in the conceptualization triggers meaning and lexical change. Object domains are conceptualized into semantic or conceptual fields which are structured by certain parameters. Language maps sets of words lexical fields onto these semantic or conceptual fields, and the relation between conceptual and lexical structure is shaped by cognitive processes such as metonymy and metaphor.

In his article Words and concepts in time: Towards a diachronic cognitive onomasiology, Blank demonstrated that onomasiology i. His investigation into conceptualization is based on detailed contrastive comparisons on how different languages name one and the same object. Blank concludes that the principle of lexical change can only be understood if we start from the cognitive level of concepts and proceed in the onomasiological direction towards the realm of words. This leads Blank to a diachronic cognitive onomasiology as the background theory for diachronic semantics.

Cognitive linguistics has already had its effects on historical semasiology, but hardly on historical onomasiology. Although certain "modern" linguistic concepts can be traced in the literature of the late nineteenth and early twentieth century the term onomasiology was coined almost one hundred years ago by the Austrian linguist Adolf Zauner in his dissertation on body-part terminology in Romance languages , it is cognitive linguistics which systematized tem to a certain extent.

Semasiology and onomasiology are schematically explained in the next picture cf. Individual semasiological diachronic approaches describe the development of a given word throughout time, e. On the level of theoretical lexicology, semasiology is the perspective behind typologies of the mechanisms of lexical innovation, such as metaphor, metonymy, types of word formation, idioms, etc. Onomasiological studies try to discover the different lexical routes through which a particular concept has been designated by going back to the respective source concepts.

They focus mainly on the change in the way we express concepts and thus help to discover recurrent schemata for designing a concept, a group of concepts, or the motives of lexical change Zgusta In a short article on onomasiology, Zgusta However, some instances of lexical change are often overlooked: Are concepts universal, language-specific or culture-specific?

This issue has been addressed from many points of view. Cognitively, speech communities create their own conceptual systems cf. Cuyckens et al Concepts are neither universal nor language-specific: The methodology and the aim of onomasiological research become strongly connected to external factors, such as the various linguistic communities. Literally, every concept and every referent can be verbalized by any language.

It is however more interesting to study which concepts are usually and constantly expressed in a given language. Only from this perspective can we gain insight into the way a speech community conceptualizes the world. Human cognition employs several basic mental operations, such as the grouping of contiguous elements into domains, the association of similar and opposite elements, the analysis of complex scenarios into clear-cut smaller scenes, etc. Thus cognitive onomasiology requires a deepened insight into diachronic lexical processes in order to understand the processes that have become opaque over time.

Traditional onomasiological studies usually distinguish between metaphors and metonymies, or loan words and semantic loans, but they do not tackle other types of semantic change. Recent studies Blank have shown that, although these types of lexical innovation are formally completely different, they rely semantically on a small set of associative 66 relations between source and target concepts: Similarity is the most diverse; it is a gradual phenomenon ranging from peripheral similarity to very strong conformity.

Contiguity relations result from reality, considering that there are spatial, temporal or logical connections between the concepts; it exhibits relations of the type: A cross-classification of processes and relations may appear abstract, but highly useful when describing word-formation and other types of lexical innovation where a morphological process suffixation, compounding, and conversion and a semantic process coincide. These processes do not have traditional names, but allow a clear specification of the manner of verbalization compound, idiom, conversion, semantic change, etc.

Semantic innovation, idioms, blends, etc, are one way to verbalize a concept. Another way is to borrow the word for the concept from a language that has already verbalized it. The case of pickpocketing This study adopts the same typological perspective, demonstrating both that the same real object can be conceptualized in different ways in different times as well as investigating the implications of this for meaning and lexical change.

The aim of this chapter is to develop a framework of diachronic cognitive onomasiology with the example of pickpocket and show how onomasiology and cognitive linguistics reveal their full explanatory power in a diachronic perspective. Pickpoketing has always been one of the most popular crimes recorded. Its rivals are maybe highway theft, prostitution and begging, which is why it was bound to gather a large amount of denominations, reflecting both its specialization and culture-specific context cf.

A pickpocket is an individual who employs a variety of methods such as distraction, misdirection, compassion and dexterity, to take advantage of a passerby by lifting their personal belongings. It is a common misconception that pickpockets are the lowest form of thieves.

Pickpockets have a very good understanding of human nature, and despite the stereotype, they are extremely skilled. A pickpocket can earn easily as much as an armed robber, without the risk, or jail time http: However, picking pockets without a person's knowledge and approval is a crime, a form of theft which involves the stealing of money and valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time.

The Oxford English Dictionary http: B2v, The pickepockets and cut-purses are nothing so daungerous to meete withal, as these Coosening Cunny-catchers. Its derivatives include pick-pocketing the picking of pockets and pickpocketism or the obsolete pickpocketry. The semantic field of pickpoketing encompasses both underworld slang and various synonyms which have settled in time, developed new meanings, or disappeared. Amongst any gang of thieves there are always groups of pickpockets who will use slang terms to communicate with each other.

A moll buzzer is a bag snatcher and someone who targets women, as men can get confrontational when challenged. Open gateway refers to goods left unattended including, but not limited to: A lift is taking the goods from the pocket or handbag of their mark. A bump is the skillful bumping into a mark to take off his guard while they bump up the wallet with their other hand up to the top of the pocket ready for them to pull off a better lift. A slip is the grabbing of the tip of a wallet and letting the mark walk away and naturally the wallet slipping out as well; usually completed after a bump up.

Drop refers to dropping off a wallet or purse at a location for later retrieval. Toss is used in team pickpocketing when the goods are tossed to the partner to cause confusion or to keep out of trouble when questioned while their partner gets away. Slit refers to the slitting of a pocket in order to retrieve a wallet from a bigger opening. Stroking is the act where they give a slight stroke on the mark's pocket to feel whether a wallet is in the mark's pocket, ready to be lifted. Vocabulum or the Rogue's Lexicon Matsell Synonyms for pickpocket include: The semantic description of pickpocket as a concept reveals the intricate background of English thievery and crime in general.

For example, a file attested by the OED since is a pickpocket who is generally accompanied by two others, one of whom is called the Adam tyler, and the other one the bulker, or staller. It is their business to jostle, or ramp the victim, while the file picks his pocket and then hands the plunder to the Adam tyler, the accomplice, who makes off with it.

Thus, a bulk and file are a pickpocket and his mate, a low-lived person; a petty thief; a streetwalker, prostitute. A file, whose etymology is unknown, is also refered to as a metal tool in Old English. It first appeared in the longer form foyl-cloy later file-cloy , also file-cloy or file-lifter. The tenth sense of dip is thieves' slang for a pickpocket; and also pocketpicking, since around A tail -diver is the one who steals pocket-handkerchiefs from coat-tail pockets, thus a pick-pocket: This Figger deliuers to the Diuer what snappings he findes in the shop or chamber.

An older meaning since is that of a person who dives under water, and especially one who makes a business of diving in order to collect pearloysters, to examine sunken vessels, etc. Further extreme specializations of pick-pockets include cross-fanning picking a pocket with the arms folded across the chest , or moll buzzer a thief that devotes himself to picking the pockets of women.

Operator was first coined as a post-classical Latin worker, producer. A staller was orginally an officer, equivalent to constable in Target form Process relation metonymical deterioration Source concept to search for Process relation contiguity specialization metaphorical similarity metaphorical similarity to emerge one who makes a business of diving - file speciali-zation amelio-ration operator metonymical speciali-zation cunning person charlatan staller speciali-zation tool conceptual contiguity one who stalls up any weapon metaphorical deterio-ration specialization cut purses conceptual contiguity - pickpocket Conceptual contiguity one who steals by cutting purses one who steals from pockets person who goes underwater worthless person person engaged in practical work officer, constable instrument of manual operation - - - buzz -er, -man dip tail diver specialization metonymical deterio-ration 71 Source concept to enter move quickly - Source form suffixation buzz, v.

Stall, The stallers up are gratified with such part of the gains acquired as the liberality of the knuckling gentlemen may prompt them to bestow. Going back to our onomasiological study, we can now describe the lexical pathways by which the words for pickpocket got their meaning. For this purpose we use the next schema which reveals several conceptual developments from a given source concept to its target concept.

In most cases, this source concept is also a target concept for another previous source concept. The associative relations linking source and target concepts are also included in the schema below. This form also became the source for the current meaning, through a process pf metonymical deterioration. A systematization of findings is based on the selection the main features of the conceptual developments from source concept to target concept and the processes and relations involved. The process or manner of verbalization revealed in the table is lexical and semantic change. Most words have been borrowed not from another language, but from another sociolect of the same language.

All words initially had a neutral meaning, which gradually specialized. The types of relation are conceptual contiguity and formal similarity. Metaphorical and metonymical constructs rely heavily on assumed characteristics of the pickpocket or of his actions. A common trend is the shift from general to increasingly specialized meanings, for example cross-fanning, or moll buzzer. There are distinctions between complex and simple denominations. The concept pickpocket is verbalized by objects tool , agents in —er, and —man operator, buzzman or actions pickpocket, cutpurse.

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These denominations 72 become increasingly complex, whilst suffixation and compounding are the preferred forms. There are also distinctions of different diachronic stages. Despite the early attestations as neutral words, the slang specializations came mostly in the 19th and 20th centuries. The ones which are still in use are: It singles out recurrent source concepts, relies on the associative relations between source and target concepts and describes the lexical processes used by the community of speakers.

It thus requires a double framework of associative relations which can virtually combine with any process of lexical innovation. This theoretical foundation also allows the description and explanation of changes towards a cognitively more prominent strategy and of reorganization of conceptual structures. Furthermore, we can predict to a certain extent which strategy will be the most probable to be taken by speakers when they produce lexical innovations.

Words and Concepts in Time: In Words in Time: Diachronic Semantics from Different Points of View. Blank, Andreas, Peter Koch. A social history of the English police vocabulary. A History of Cant and Slang Dictionaries.

Cognitive Linguistics Research 33, Berlin: Cognitive Approaches to Lexical Semantics. Cognitive Linguistics Research In Trends in Linguistics. Studies and Monographs The Secret Language of Crime: Vocabulum, or the Rogue's Lexicon. Aufgaben und Methoden der onomasiologischen Forschung. In Romanica Helvetica Cited in Words in Time: Eckardt, Regine, Heusinger, Klaus. In Research guide on language change. Mobilitatea vocabularului argotic Argoul presupune o mare mobilitate a vocabularului cf.

Aceasta pe de o parte. Lexic comun, lexic specializat. Journal of Liguistics Aspects of Resemantisation in Argot The present paper investigates, with application to Romanian, the phenomenon of resemantisation in argot — one of the main sources of the permanent development of argot as a special kind of lexis, encoded to various extents. A configuration of the perimeter of this investigation involves highlighting certain aspects of framing argot as a special vs.

The aims of the paper are as follows: The accomplishment of these objectives requires a general linguistic methodology, whose instruments belong mostly to semantic analyses. The research hypothesis derived from the above-mentioned objectives is that the degree of expressiveness of the argot terms depends on the encoding degree of the repective argot vocabulary and on the urgency of refreshing of this lexical type.

As an academic figure, Zapp dominates the trilogy through vitality and distinctiveness of portraiture. He is a man of extremes, as an academic or as an individual personality. Not unexpectedly, hyperbole is also a stylistic constant in his portrait. We have selected and analysed some formal realizations of hyperbole with examples ranging from words, phrases of different length and type accompanying modifiers, intensifiable concepts to complete sentences or whole syntactic contexts. We have considered as the element of identification the contextually determined conflict between what is said and what is meant.

The element of identification is the conflict between what is said and what is meant, which is clear in those cases where a statement is grossly overstated. Hyperbole is a highly contextually determined phenomenon. A crucial aspect of its definition is that hyperbolic statement is contradicted by the actual facts, that is, these stay below the limits of what is expressed. As a rule, the hyperbole implies a big contrast between the stated point and the actual point.

The greater the contrast, the greater its stylistic value is. Two important factors concerning the relationship between context and hyperbolic expression are important here, namely the distinction between truth and deception and the problem of factual truth versus emotional truth. Hyperbole is the traditional term taken from classical rhetoric and thus is associated with formal and persuasive speech, later with stylistics and literature. It is the term used in dictionaries of literary terminology, while overstatement and exaggeration are everyday terms with no clear affiliation to any domain or use.

Gibbs distinguishes between hyperbole as intentional exaggeration and overstatement as non-intentional and subconscious disregarding exaggeration itself as a denomination. Norrick quoted in Claridge We will use hyperbole as the primary technical term because it is well established as an intentional linguistic act, with the mention that overstatement and exaggeration will be used as loose, non-technical terms. They are set, entirely or partly, in the university and city of Rummidge.

Despite the continuity of places and of some of the characters, the three books were never planned as a trilogy and it was only after Lodge began his work on Small World that he decided to make it a sequel to Changing Places. As such the novels are formally and thematically distinct, although in they were brought together under the title rather artificial and derived from obvious marketing reasons A David Lodge Trilogy. Morris Zapp is self-confident, conceited, and vain. He is a restless womanizer who has endangered two of his marriages.

As a professor, an expert on Jane 90 Austen and the Theory of Fiction and later on Deconstruction, he is brilliant and stimulating. His academic writing is prolific and his ambition of writing the complete book of criticism on Jane Austen is impressive. We have selected some formal realizations of hyperbole with examples ranging from words, simple or via phrases of different length and type, accompanying modifiers, intensifiable concepts to complete sentences or whole syntactic contexts.

Thus, hyperbolic intensification lies in: On its own, legend would have been perfectly normal for a person of extraordinary deeds, but in this paradoxical union with Zapp, it creates a peculiar effect, namely that of producing a very positive and enthusiastic evaluation of an, otherwise, capable professional. So that when each commentary was written, there would be nothing further to say about the novel in question. The grandeur of the project is conveyed hyperbolically by lexical 91 cumulation: The idea of hyperbolic exhaustion is strengthened through the repetition of nothing further to say which becomes repetition if the two texts are considered together , marked graphically in the two bodies of the texts through italics.

We have included in this category of determiner with hyperbolic functions the article and the accompanying modifier, that is the epithet performing the role of hyperbole. I think I can say in all modesty I was the Jane Austen man. Traditionally, the function of the is to identify something which is contextually known to be unique, while the function of a is to express indefiniteness or new information. Lodge, as a skilled stylist, plays on this linguistic convention to create interesting effects.

However, the perspective of the focalizers changes within the same sentence and the shift in articles together with the graphic emphasis in italics claims unique reference on the basis of academic contextual knowledge: The reference connoted hyperbolically by means of the definite article misses. Thus the playful perspective from a rendered by the use of the evaluative modals of course — indeed expressing climatic degrees of truth which emphasize the conviction that what is being said is undebatable and from b rendered by the use of the PP in all modesty functioning as an understatement for the reference by means of the definite article is counterbalanced by objectivity in reference in c.

Neanderthal d is an example in this sense. It is used to emphasize inadequate specific of a caveman appearance, on one hand, and on the other hand, to express the negative emotional impact of such an appearance. We have included in this category with hyperbolic functions whole propositions containing degree adjectives: As a consequence, many of the realizations of hyperbole are in the comparative and the superlative degree.

In a we find such an example with an overstatement already contained in the element to be compared against, life while the modifying adjective in the comparative degree takes the exaggeration even further producing a strong, perplexing impression, a little larger. On top of it, the pre-positioned intensifier a little larger is used to perfect the hyperbole and add a clear humorous touch.

Hyperbole implies the association of two things, persons or ideas. The ironic touch of the overstatement of the association Zapp — the biggest fish and Rummidge as the habitat of the academics — backwater as the habitat of the fish is highlighted by the presence in the same sentence of the counterpart figure of speech, that is, the understatement in all modesty.

In c there is another example of an exaggerated comparative of equality as the contrast a cigar — size of a small zeppelin produces the hyperbole. He had blown into the jaded, demoralized atmosphere of Rummidge University like an invigorating breeze, intimating that there were still places in the world where scholars and critics pursued their professional goals with zestful confidence, where conferences multiplied and grants were to be had to attend them, where conversation at academic parties was more likely to be about the latest controversial book or article than about the latest scaling-down of departmental maintenance grants.

Morris Zapp, who always claimed that he had made himself an authority on the literature of England 94 not in spite but because of never having set foot in the country. If the presentation would have been made by some other than Zapp himself, the subjectivity of evaluation would have been preserved, but would have lost its hyperbolic interpretation as moral rules of social conduct fine highly appreciative, lacking in modesty presentations of the self. However, the choice of idiom is more valuable and gets hyperbolic reading especially set in association with the Guggenheim Fellowships, which, as those working in the academic field know, are rather difficult to obtain.

In other words, while each clause individually might not be at all there were still places in the world where scholars and critics pursued their professional goals with zestful confidence, or where conferences multiplied and grants were to be had to attend them or only mildly hyperbolic where conversation at academic parties was more likely to be about the latest controversial book or article than about the latest scaling-down of departmental maintenance grants , the clauses support each other, in their kind of staccato sequence thus producing the overall hyperbole.

What manner of man is he? Do his canines hang out over the lower lip?

Is his handshake cold and clammy? Do his eyes have a murderous glint? The strategy of portraying is parodistic. As the investigation of the examples has shown, it is in context that the hyperbolic meaning is usually carried because all these categories highlight the fact that some items are fairly prominent or salient in hyperbolic usage, but often do not cause the overstating effect on their own. A Corpus-based Study of Exaggeration. Cambridge University Press Gibbs, W. The Poetics of Mind. Figurative Thought, Language and Understanding. A Way of Seeing the World. A Linguistic Guide to English Poetry.

A Tale of Two Campuses. Laying down the Law: Mysticism, Fetishism, and the American Legal Mind. New York and London: New York University Press. La fix ne vedem. Da, deci la prima vedere este OK. Ceea ce reiese poate fi redat astfel: The Discourse of Corporate Meetings. Gender, Power, and Relational Practice at Work. Power and Politeness in the Workplace. A Sociolinguistic Analysis of Talk at Work.

Communication and Power in Organizations: Discourse, Ideology and Domination. Constructing social relationship in the workplace Workplace interaction is a site for achieving objectives: This paper focuses mainly on the communication strategies used by the chairs of two meetings, which took place in Romanian organizations. The direct and indirect manifestations of power aim at controlling the development of the meetings and at building and maintaining hierarchical relationships.

Positive politeness strategies foster collegiality and strengthen workplace relationships. Workplace interaction, transactional objectives, power, positive politeness strategy. Our study takes into account the two main types of discourse cohesion, namely lexical cohesion and grammatical cohesion. In what concerns lexical cohesion, we discuss reiteration repetition, use of a synonym, an antonym and of hyponyms and collocation three important patterns of collocations and other types of collocations, which contribute to discourse cohesion.

As regards grammatical cohesion, we deal with reference personal, demonstrative, comparative reference, as well as reference achieved by modifying adjectives , substitution nominal, verbal and clausal substitution , ellipsis, and discourse markers conjunctions and connecting adverbs, with reference to different types of relations which they create.

Introduction Before discussing the elements that achieve lexical and grammatical cohesion in the EU legal documents, let us cast some light on the important concepts which dominate the present paper. Generally speaking, the term discourse refers to written or oral communication. But the term discourse is also used as a count noun, referring to conventional ways of talking, involving patterns of belief and language.

In the Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics Crystal The term is used by some linguists to refer to the property of larger units than the morpheme to bind together in constructions, e. In the hallidayan approach to grammatical analysis, cohesion is a major concept, referring to those surface-structure features of an utterance or text which link different parts of sentences or larger units of discourse, e.

The semantic relations between sentences, which are achieved through links between grammatical and lexical items, are called cohesive ties by Halliday and Hasan These cohesive ties may be anaphoric or cataphoric, meaning that an item may refer to something previously mentioned or may indicate something that follows. Below we provide a schematic representation of the two types of discourse cohesion, along with their cohesive ties devices , which we will discuss further on. Discourse Cohesion Lexical Reiteration Grammatical Collocation Reference Substitution Ellipsis Discourse Markers Our paper attempts to identify and discuss, by providing relevant examples, some important cohesive ties which achieve lexical and grammatical cohesion in the European Union legal documents.

We mention that we have used a monolingual English corpus of EU legal documents made up of various regulations, directives, decisions and the Consolidated versions of the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union for the purpose of the present paper. Lexical cohesion We have started our study by analysing lexical cohesion in the EU legal documents making up our corpus.

Halliday and Hasan divide the various lexical cohesive ties or cohesive devices into two main categories: Reiteration refers to the repetition of the same word, or to the use of a synonym, the use of a superordinate term and the use of a general word. By lexical relations, McCarthy refers to the stable semantic relationships that exist between words, which are synonymy, antonymy and hyponymy. Repetition As Cutting We have come across many cases of repetition in the EU legal documents under analysis.

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Although the repetition of the same word leads to redundancy, it is useful in order to create precision in legal contexts, by avoiding ambiguity. Member States shall determine how such reference is to be made2. We have noticed that, in the EU legal documents, synonyms are used in order to avoid the repetition of the same word, but at the same time they are triggered by collocational usage: In our corpus of documents, antonyms are usually coordinated by the conjunctions or or and. According to our analysis, in the EU legal documents, hyponyms are usually used in enumerations.

Our analysis shows that all three types of reiteration are present in the EU legal documents, repetitions and the use of hyponyms being the most frequent ones. Or, in plain words, we can say that a collocation represent two or more words that usually go together. In her book, Cozma Besides these two categories, she also discusses general collocations, which are characteristic to an official style Cozma We have also identified these three types of collocations in our corpus of documents.

Collocations belonging to different specialist fields to which the European law applies. In the first example given below the collocations belong to the field of animal feed, while in the second example the collocations are proper to the field of nuclear energy. Collocations characteristic to an official style contain combinations of words used in formal contexts. Apart from this classification of collocations given by Cozma , the EU legal documents in our corpus make use of many types of collocations.

We provide below only a few examples of frequent word combinations, which achieve lexical cohesion.

STRUCTURE, USE, AND MEANING LINGUISTIC STUDIES

Grammatical cohesion Taboada The cohesive ties that ensure grammatical cohesion are: We can say that reference concerns the relation between a discourse element and a preceding or following element. Personal reference In the EU legal documents that we have analysed, we have come across all types of devices for achieving personal reference: These personal pronouns and possessive adjectives have an anaphoric function, as they refer to something that has been previously mentioned.

Besides, the EU legal documents do not contain instances of personal pronouns and possessive adjectives for the first and second person, singular and plural. In what concerns the possessive pronouns, we have encountered only cases of possessive pronouns for the third person plural. Demonstrative reference In the EU legal documents under analysis, demonstrative reference uses the following devices, which mainly have an anaphoric function: The predominant ones are demonstrative adjectives and the definite article. Such an agreement would have to include necessary provisions on data protection There are fairly many adjectives and adverbs in the comparative degree, in the EU legal documents under analysis, which achieve comparative reference.

We have also come across this special reference device, which is generally present in the English legal texts: Substitution As Taboada She adds that substitution can be nominal, verbal or clausal, depending on the substituted item. In addition, Salkie There are few examples of substitutions in the EU legal documents, as their usage may create misunderstandings or ambiguities.

For the nominal substitution we have encountered the items the same and the one, for the verbal substitution we have come across the verbal substitute to do so and for the clausal substitution we have found the item so and the clausal substitute if so. Verbal substitution, in which to do so refers to what is stated in the previous sentence. If they fail to do so, the proposed act shall be deemed not to have been adopted Clausal substitution, in which so and if so substitute the information previously mentioned.

Therefore, ellipsis consists in leaving out a word or phrase instead of repeating it. Discourse markers As Lenk The two types of discourse markers that contribute to the cohesion of the text, indicating a sequential relationship, are conjunctions and connecting adverbs. Conjunctions In the EU legal documents that we have analyzed, conjunctions are used to create different types of relations such as: Additive relations, which are achieved by conjunctions that add more information: Disjunctive relations, which are achieved by the conjunction or, expressing a choice. Adversative relations, which are achieved by the conjunction but, expressing opposition or contrast.

We have not encountered the adversative conjunction yet, which is generally used in informal contexts. Correlative relations, which are achieved by the correlative conjunctions: The most used correlative conjunctions in our corpus are either Conditional relations, which describe a condition, being achieved by the conjunctions if, unless and where. Concessive relations, which are achieved by the conjunctions although and even though. Purpose relations, which are achieved by the conjunction so that indicating the purpose, usually followed by the modal can.

Contrast relations, which are achieved by the conjunctions while and whereas, showing a contrast or a comparison. Temporal relations, which are achieved by the conjunctions when, after, before and as soon as expressing different relations in time. All types of relations achieved by conjunctions previously discussed are well-represented in the EU legal documents under analysis, playing an important part in discourse cohesion. Connecting adverbs A connecting or conjunctive adverb is an adverb that connects two clauses, showing different types of relationships such as: Additive relations, which are achieved by the adverbs also, furthermore, moreover and in addition.

Adversative relation, which are achieved by the adverbs however and nevertheless, however being the predominant one. However, the Commission notes the total lack of any relevant documentation concerning the cooperating exporting producer as no application to the scheme or decision granting the award was provided Resultive relations, which are achieved by the adverbs therefore, thus, consequently and accordingly. Thus the findings presented in this Regulation are not based on their information and data Just like conjunctions, connecting adverbs are extremely necessary and quite frequent in the EU legal documents that we have analyzed, achieving additive, adversative and resultive relations.

Conclusions Pursuant to our analysis, we consider that the legal discourse of the European Union legislation is characterised by clear and precise language, which respects the rules of cohesion. Some punctual conclusions can be formulated as follows: Our endeavour provides relevant insights into lexical and grammatical cohesion of the English EU legal documents and may be of use to the Romanian translators of EU legislation, who should be aware of the way discourse cohesion is achieved in order to properly decode the meaning of the source text and render it as precisely as possible in their translations.

Discourse and Context in Language Teaching. A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics. A Resource Book for Students. Georgakopoulou, Alexandra and Dionysis Goutsos. Functions of Discourse Markers in Spoken English. Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. Aktuell lassen sich die Konzepte unter die konstruktivistische Didaktik einordnen und gelten daher als didaktisch-methodisches Konzept. Anders stellt sich die Situation in der Erwachsenenbildung dar.

Die Selbststeuerung erfolgt hierbei allerdings in etwas engeren Grenzen. Der Stoff also das Lernziel ist in der Regel vorgegeben. Die Lernenden arbeiten somit nicht autodidaktisch , sondern erwerben eine begleitete Methodenkompetenz , bei generischer Sicht eine Informationskompetenz vgl. Beispielsweise gab es im Jahrhundert bezahlten Zigarrenarbeiter durch Umlage eigene Vorleser. Managementtrainings, gewerkschaftliche Bildungsarbeit, usw. SGL ist seither weiter verbreitet und kann als wichtiger Grundsatz in der Andragogik gesehen werden. Diese Verfahren werden untergliedert in:. Ein weiterer Grund liegt in der kurzen Halbwertszeit , die Wissen in vielen Teilen der heutigen Gesellschaft hat.

So haben Braner und Lackmann heraus gefunden, dass die Halbwertszeit von Wissen im Bankgewerbe ca.

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