Individual Orientation in Education (Plan Europe 2000, Project 1: Educating Man for the 21st Century)

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In , a groundbreaking education conference was held in London at the International Health Exhibition , attracting specialists from all over Europe. In the late 19th century, most of West, Central, and parts of East Europe began to provide elementary education in reading, writing, and arithmetic, partly because politicians believed that education was needed for orderly political behavior. As more people became literate, they realized that most secondary education was only open to those who could afford it. Having created primary education, the major nations had to give further attention to secondary education by the time of World War I.

In the 20th century, new directions in education included, in Italy, Maria Montessori 's Montessori schools ; and in Germany, Rudolf Steiner 's development of Waldorf education. France had many small local schools where working-class children — both boys and girls — learned to read, the better to know, love and serve God. The sons and daughters of the noble and bourgeois elites, however, were given quite distinct educations: The Enlightenment challenged this old ideal, but no real alternative presented itself for female education. Only through education at home were knowledgeable women formed, usually to the sole end of dazzling their salons.

The modern era of French education begins in the s. The Revolution in the s abolished the traditional universities [71] Napoleon sought to replace them with new institutions, the Polytechnique, focused on technology. The goal was to break the hold of the Catholic Church and monarchism on young people. Catholic schools were still tolerated but in the early 20th century the religious orders sponsoring them were shut down. In , John Pounds set up a school and began teaching poor children reading, writing, and mathematics without charging fees.

In , Samuel Wilderspin opened the first infant school in Spitalfield. In August , Parliament voted to sum money to support poor children's school fees in England and Wales. Japan isolated itself from the rest of the world in the year under the Tokugawa regime — In very few common people were literate. By the period's end, learning had become widespread.

Tokugawa education left a valuable legacy: Traditional Samurai curricula for elites stressed morality and the martial arts.

Confucian classics were memorized, and reading and recitation of them were common methods of study. Arithmetic and calligraphy were also studied. Education of commoners was generally practically oriented, providing basic 3-Rs, calligraphy and use of the abacus.

Much of this education was conducted in so-called temple schools terakoya , derived from earlier Buddhist schools. These schools were no longer religious institutions, nor were they, by , predominantly located in temples. By the end of the Tokugawa period, there were more than 11, such schools, attended by , students. Teaching techniques included reading from various textbooks, memorizing, abacus, and repeatedly copying Chinese characters and Japanese script. These rates were comparable to major European nations at the time apart from Germany, which had compulsory schooling.

After reformers set Japan on a rapid course of modernization , with a public education system like that of Western Europe. Missions like the Iwakura mission were sent abroad to study the education systems of leading Western countries. They returned with the ideas of decentralization, local school boards , and teacher autonomy. Elementary school enrollments climbed from about 40 or 50 percent of the school-age population in the s to more than 90 percent by , despite strong public protest, especially against school fees.

A modern concept of childhood emerged in Japan after as part of its engagement with the West. Meiji era leaders decided the nation-state had the primary role in mobilizing individuals - and children - in service of the state. The Western-style school became the agent to reach that goal. By the s, schools were generating new sensibilities regarding childhood.

They taught the upper middle class a model of childhood that included children having their own space where they read children's books, played with educational toys and, especially, devoted enormous time to school homework. These ideas rapidly disseminated through all social classes [78] [79]. After school textbooks based on Confucianism were replaced by westernized texts. However, by the s, a reaction set in and a more authoritarian approach was imposed.

Traditional Confucian and Shinto precepts were again stressed, especially those concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new state, the pursuit of learning, and morality. These ideals, embodied in the Imperial Rescript on Education , along with highly centralized government control over education, largely guided Japanese education until , when they were massively repudiated.

History of education - Wikipedia

Education was widespread for elite young men in the 18th century, with schools in most regions of the country. The current system of education, with its western style and content, was introduced and founded by the British during the British Raj , following recommendations by Lord Macaulay , who advocated for the teaching of English in schools and the formation of a class of Anglicized Indian interpreters. Public education expenditures in the late 19th and early 20th centuries varied dramatically across regions with the western and southern provinces spending three to four times as much as the eastern provinces.

Much of the inter-regional differential was due to historical differences in land taxes, the major source of revenue. His reforms centered on literacy training and on restructuring of the university systems. They stressed ungraded curricula, modern textbooks, and new examination systems.

Curzon's plans for technical education laid the foundations which were acted upon by later governments. Organized education in Norway dates as far back as medieval times. Shortly after Norway became an archdiocese in , cathedral schools were constructed to educate priests in Trondheim , Oslo , Bergen and Hamar.

After the reformation of Norway in , Norway entered a personal union with Denmark in the cathedral schools were turned into Latin schools, and it was made mandatory for all market towns to have such a school. In training in reading was made compulsory for all children, but was not effective until some years later. In , Norway introduced the folkeskole , a primary school which became mandatory for 7 years in and 9 years in In the s and s, the folkeskole was abolished, and the grunnskole was introduced.

In , Norway established a new curriculum for elementary schools and middle schools. The plan is based on ideological nationalism, child-orientation, and community-orientation along with the effort to publish new ways of teaching. In Canada, education became a contentious issue after Confederation in , especially regarding the status of French schools outside Quebec.

Education in New Zealand began with provision made by the provincial government, the missionary Christian churches and private education. The first act of parliament for education was passed in , and sought to establish a standard for primary education. It was compulsory for children to attend school from the age of 6 until the age of 16 years. In Australia, compulsory education was enacted in the s, and it was difficult to enforce.

People found it hard to afford for school fees. Moreover, teachers felt that they did not get high salary for what they have done. In Imperial Russia , according to the census, literate people made up 28 percent of the population. There was a strong network of universities for the upper class, but weaker provisions for everyone else.

Vladimir Lenin , in proclaimed the major aim of the Soviet government was the abolition of illiteracy. A system of universal compulsory education was established. Millions of illiterate adults were enrolled in special literacy schools. Youth groups Komsomol members and Young Pioneer were utilized to teach. In , the literacy rate was An important aspect of the early campaign for literacy and education was the policy of "indigenization" korenizatsiya. This policy, which lasted essentially from the mids to the late s, promoted the development and use of non-Russian languages in the government, the media, and education.

Intended to counter the historical practices of Russification, it had as another practical goal assuring native-language education as the quickest way to increase educational levels of future generations. A huge network of so-called "national schools" was established by the s, and this network continued to grow in enrollments throughout the Soviet era.

Language policy changed over time, perhaps marked first of all in the government's mandating in the teaching of Russian as a required subject of study in every non-Russian school, and then especially beginning in the latter s a growing conversion of non-Russian schools to Russian as the main medium of instruction. Education in French controlled West Africa during the late s and early s was different from the nationally uniform compulsory education of France in the s.

The French language was also taught as an integral part of adapted education.

Female education

Africa has more than 40 million children. Today, there is some form of compulsory education in most countries. Due to population growth and the proliferation of compulsory education, UNESCO has calculated that in the next 30 years more people will receive formal education than in all of human history thus far. Illiteracy and the percentage of populations without any schooling have decreased in the past several decades. Among developing countries, illiteracy and percentages without schooling in stood at about half the figures. Among developed countries, figures about illiteracy rates differ widely.

Illiteracy rates in less economically developed countries LEDCs surpassed those of more economically developed countries MEDCs by a factor of 10 in , and by a factor of about 20 in Percentages without any schooling showed similar patterns. Since the midth century, societies around the globe have undergone an accelerating pace of change in economy and technology.

Its effects on the workplace, and thus on the demands on the educational system preparing students for the workforce, have been significant. Beginning in the s, government, educators, and major employers issued a series of reports identifying key skills and implementation strategies to steer students and workers towards meeting the demands of the changing and increasingly digital workplace and society. Many of these skills are also associated with deeper learning , including analytic reasoning, complex problem solving, and teamwork, compared to traditional knowledge-based academic skills.

When the men of Alexander the Great came to Taxila in India in the fourth century BC they found a university there the like of which had not been seen in Greece, a university which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen accomplishments and was still existing when the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien went there about AD From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Not to be confused with the quarterly journal History of Education: Journal of the History of Education Society.

History of education in ancient Israel and Judah. History of education in China and History of education in Taiwan. Education in ancient Greece and Education in ancient Rome. Medieval university , List of medieval universities , and List of oldest universities in continuous operation.

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Bimaristan , Ijazah , and Maktab. History of education in India. History of education in Japan. History of European research universities. History of education in France. Education in the Empire of Japan. Education in the Soviet Union. History of Education in the United States. Mohr-Siebeck, at page Muslim heritage in our world. Foundation for Science, Technology and Civilisation Ltd. Education in Ancient India. David Pearson, Michael L. Longman, cc; at page Teachers College Press, Harris, Ancient literacy Harvard University Press, From the Sixth through the Eighth Century", Columbia: Renaissance and Renewal in the Twelfth Century.

The Narrators of Barbarian History A. Duckett, Alcuin, Friend of Charlemagne: Ridder-Symoens, Hilde de ed. A History of the University in Europe. See also Evolutionary World Politics Homepage. Comprehensive data derived from student performance, teacher surveys, and onsite observations demonstrated that highly effective physical education programs were housed in cohesive, long-standing departments that experienced more facilitators e.

Further, effective programs made curricular changes prior to the enactment of state-level policy, while ineffective programs waited to make changes until they were told to do so.

The teachers in ineffective programs had misconceptions about student performance and, in general, lower expectations of student performance and behavior. Two large-scale intervention studies—SPARK and CATCH—are discussed in this section as examples of how programs can be structured to increase vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education classes. The aim of SPARK, a research-based curriculum, is to improve the health, fitness, and physical activity levels of youth by creating, implementing, and evaluating programs that promote lifelong wellness. Research supports the use of SPARK as a platform for improving the quality of physical activity instruction in schools.

The SPARK curriculum has demonstrated the ability to improve student activity levels, increase the number of minutes of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity for students, and provide sustainable and positive change in a school district Myers-Schieffer and Thomas, This is gratifying because one of the goals of the program was to engender positive feeling. In another study, a SPARK intervention is credited with exposing students to an increase in motor skills drills, which in turn led to a higher level of manipulative motor skills acquisition McKenzie et al.

As a result of improved activity levels, students who participated in the SPARK curriculum improved their times in the 1-mile run and sit-up tests Sallis et al. Teachers involved in the SPARK intervention offered increased levels of fitness promotion and provided students with an increased amount of general instruction and increased minutes of attention per week McKenzie et al.

The CATCH program teaches children in grades K-8 how to be healthy throughout their lifetimes through a coordinated approach that involves engaging the community, families, and educators to work together. CATCH significantly increases the physical activity levels of students during physical education class and provides a wide range of learning experiences for students of all abilities.

CATCH began as a clinical trial from to in four regional sites: The participants were elementary school children in grades 3 through 5 and included children from multiethnic backgrounds. The changes were maintained for 3 years postintervention Nader et al. Because physical education is part of the curriculum in schools, its quality should be judged only by whether and to what extent children have learned and benefited from it.

In a landmark document on learning goals, Moving into the Future: National Standards for Physical Education , NASPE proposes six student learning standards specifying both conceptual and behavioral characteristics that a physically educated person must pos-.

History of education

These characteristics encompass knowledge, skill, behavior, and confidence critical to the development and maintenance of health and to the enjoyment of a physically active, healthful lifestyle. If standards are the gauge for quality, teachers make the difference in a particular school in terms of the extent to which students can achieve the standards. Research has made clear that certified physical education specialists can provide more and longer opportunities for students to meet physical activity guidelines compared with classroom teachers trained to teach physical education McKenzie et al.

Moreover, when teachers are taught strategies to encourage vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity in physical education class, a significant increase in physical activity can be expected Lonsdale et al. The role of certified physical. The evidence is unequivocal regarding the need for a continued effort to train physical education specialists and the need for schools to continue to employ them as the main teaching force designing and implementing health-enhancing physical education programs to the fullest extent. Aside from serving as the instructional leader for physical education, physical education specialists can serve as expert resources for classroom teachers in the implementation of classroom physical activity breaks and recess discussed in detail in Chapter 6.

Their expertise in age-appropriate physical activity helps ensure that students are participating in activities that are fun and engaging. Additionally, as the catalyst for a healthy school environment, the physical education specialist can assist in the design and delivery of intramural programs provided before and after school, as well as serve as a community outreach specialist for onsite activity partnerships.

For physical education specialists interested in a more formal role as a physical activity leader at their school, NASPE has developed a director of physical activity certification program. It is a commonly held notion of society that to maintain the quality of education, schools should hire teachers certified to teach in the subject matter areas in which they are licensed.

Unfortunately, in the United States, not all physical education classes are taught by certified physical education specialists. Indeed, 68 percent of elementary schools allow classroom teachers generalists to teach physical education NASPE, Only 31 states 60 percent support physical education teachers going through the national board certification process, and only New York requires each school district to have a licensed physical education specialist serving as a physical education coordinator NASPE, In addition, teaching physical education requires substantial knowledge and skill in pedagogy—the science and art of teaching.

These standards are accompanied by measurement rubrics unacceptable, acceptable, and target, with target being exemplary developed jointly by NASPE and the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education NCATE for evaluating physical education teacher education programs across the country the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico.

But the data sources did not distinguish between physical education teaching majors and other kinesiology concentrations e. Statistics on the number of physical education teacher education programs and their quality based on the NASPE standards are needed. The current wave of effort to curb physical inactivity among youth has begun to influence teacher education programs. According to a national survey study Kulinna et al.

These data appear to suggest that physical education teacher education programs are beginning to turn from a traditionally sports- and skills-centered model to a more comprehensive, physical activity— and health-centered model. This change is important in that the role of both current and future physical education teachers extends beyond merely teaching their classes to advancing public health goals McKenzie, In many universities, however, teacher education programs in physical education have either been reduced or eliminated because of the decline in physical education requirements, which has resulted in a decrease in the number of physical education teachers being employed.

Concomitantly, physical education teacher education programs are experiencing an unprecedented crisis. A recent report indicates that, in school year , only 23 doctorate-granting kinesiology departments offered doctoral programs. Scientific and theoretical knowledge: Physical education teacher candidates know and apply discipline-specific scientific and theoretical concepts critical to the development of physically educated individuals. Skill-based and fitness-based competence: Physical education teacher candidates are physically educated individuals with the knowledge and skills necessary to demonstrate competent movement performance and health-enhancing fitness as delineated in the NASPE K standards.

Physical education teacher candidates plan and implement developmentally appropriate learning experiences aligned with local, state, and national standards to address the diverse needs of all students. Instructional delivery and management: Physical education teacher candidates use effective communication and pedagogical skills and strategies to enhance student engagement and learning.

A total of doctoral students were receiving training offered by professors including part-time , and 11 percent of those professors were planning to retire. Boyce and Rikard a report that in the past 13 years, doctoral students graduated as physical education teacher educators— During the same period, 61 positions were open, only 39 of which were filled 64 percent , with an applicant pool of 38 candidates with earned degrees and 13 who completed the doctoral course-work but did not complete the dissertation research Boyce and Rikard, b.

Clearly there is a shortage of physical education teacher educators. Impact on student learning: Physical education teacher candidates use assessments and reflection to foster student learning and inform decisions about instruction. Physical education teacher candidates demonstrate dispositions essential to becoming effective professionals.

Advanced physical education teacher candidates come to understand disciplinary content knowledge, the application of content knowledge to teaching physical education, and modes of inquiry that form the bases for physical education programs and instruction. Advanced physical education teacher candidates AC use content knowledge and pedagogical content knowledge PCK to design and conduct appropriate learning experiences that facilitate and enhance the growth of learners. Advanced physical education teacher candidates are continuous, collaborative learners who further their own professional development and use their abilities to contribute to the profession.

Because of a lack of national tracking data on physical education graduates, the extent to which the teacher educator shortage has impacted and will impact the need to supply quality physical education teachers to the nation is unclear. Professional development is essential for improving classroom instruction and student achievement Ball and.

Cohen, ; Cohen and Hill, Through a variety of delivery methods, professional development activities may include credit or noncredit courses, classroom or online venues, workshops, seminars, teleconferences, and webinars, with the ultimate goal of improving the delivery of instruction to enhance student achievement.

Yoon and colleagues assert that a strong link exists among professional development, teacher learning and practice, and student achievement. Figure , which aligns with the research on effective professional development Kennedy, ; Loucks-Horsley and Matsumoto, ; Cohen and Hill, ; Garet et al.

The most impactful statement of government policy on the preparation and professional development of teachers was the reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act Whitehurst, , known as the No Child Left Behind Act. While Title I of the act places highly qualified teachers in the classroom, Title II addresses the same goal by funding professional development for teachers.

The importance of quality professional development is well documented in the act. The act states that high-quality professional development programs should have the characteristics listed in Box Recommendations for high-quality professional development tend to emphasize the importance of. It is sustained, intensive, and content-focused to have a positive and lasting impact on classroom instruction and teacher performance.

It is aligned with and directly related to state academic content standards, student achievement standards, and assessments. It is regularly evaluated for effects on teacher effectiveness and student achievement.

Intensive and focused in-service training. Wiley and Yoon and Kennedy suggest that teaching practice and student achievement are likely to improve when professional development is focused on academic content and curriculum that are aligned with standards-based reform. Looking at the effect of professional development on changes in behavior among physical education teachers, Martin and colleagues found that, following a variety of professional development experiences and follow-up sessions, teachers showed increases in their efficacy in attaining motor skills objectives, physical activity and fitness knowledge objectives, and personal and social objectives.

Results indicated that after teachers completed professional development the resources they gained enabled them to improve their instruction by teaching more content, maximizing student learning opportunities, teaching diverse learners, teaching to development, and increasing classroom safety. Learning Forward formerly known as the National Staff Development Council provides research-based guidelines to assist districts in aligning local professional development programs with qualitative standards. Its Standards for Professional Learning were revised in and are guided by the relationship between professional learning and student results see Box According to Learning Forward As a recognized means of providing physical education teachers with the tools necessary to enhance student achievement, quality professional development should be provided on a regular basis with follow-up support, along with a method for determining its effectiveness in meeting both curricular and pedagogical standards.

Furthermore, to enhance the fitness achievement of students, school-based professional development should provide instruction on the integration of fitness testing into a curriculum and should include training in protocols, the interpretation and communication of results, and the setting and achievement of fitness goals and recommendations for developing healthy living habits for both students and their parents IOM, a.

Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students occurs within learning communities committed to continuous improvement, collective responsibility, and goal alignment. Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students requires skillful leaders who develop capacity, advocate, and create support systems for professional learning. Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students requires prioritizing, monitoring, and coordinating resources for educator learning.

Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students uses a variety of sources and types of student, educator, and system data to plan, assess, and evaluate professional learning. Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students integrates theories, research, and models of human learning to achieve its intended outcomes.

Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students applies research on change and sustains support for implementation of professional learning for long-term change. Professional learning that increases educator effectiveness and results for all students aligns its outcomes with educator performance and student curriculum standards. Instructional opportunities for physical activity and physical education are mandated by most states.

In comparison with data prior to , more states have developed mandates for physical education at both the elementary and secondary school levels. However, most mandates lack a specified time allocation that ensures meeting the NASPE recommendation of and minutes per week for elementary and secondary schools, respectively McCullick et al. Some obstacles to the implementation of quality physical activity are listed in Box Class periods dedicated to physical education are declining at all school levels. Existing discrepancies between policy and implementation with respect to specific time allocation contribute to a reduction in actual instructional time for physical education.

There is a potential shortage of physical education specialists to influence the design and maintenance of quality physical education programs. Reductions in active learning time and opportunities in physical education contribute to potential student underachievement on national standards. Disparities may exist in instructional opportunities for children in nontraditional learning settings. With physical education not being considered a core subject, and amid growing concern regarding the increase in childhood obesity and physical inactivity, several national studies and reports have emphasized the importance of implementing state statutes, laws, and regulations both mandating time requirements for physical education and monitoring compliance.

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In the United States, school policies on curriculum and school-based activities are determined by local education agencies according to state laws governing educational activities. Decisions about what to teach, who will teach it, and what level of resources will be provided are made by the state, county or district, and school administration.

Of importance to this analysis is the distinction made between state statutes and administrative codes, which accords with the definition proffered by Perna and colleagues Using the NASBE database, the committee performed an overall analysis of policies on physical education and physical activity of the 50 states and the District of Columbia. The analysis revealed that 45 states 88 percent mandate physical education; 22 states 23 percent require it.

A majority of states allow for waivers or substitutions for physical education see the discussion below.

Fitness assessment is required in 15 states 29 percent , and other curricular assessments are required in 4 states 0. Forty-three states 84 percent require some degree of physical education for high school graduation, with a range of 0. Although no federal policies requiring physical education presently exist, the above evidence shows that the majority of states require physical education.

However, the number of days and time required vary greatly by state and local school district, as does the amount of physical education required for high school graduation. Given the reduced time for physical activity in school through recess, and absent the implementation of stronger policies, schools have not only the opportunity but also the responsibility to nurture in youth the skills, knowledge, and confidence to develop and maintain a healthy lifestyle. The consensus among states indicated by the mandates for physical education summarized above, together with the discrepancies in specific policies, may suggest the need for general guidelines or a federal-level mandate that can serve to guide a collective effort to address the prevalence of childhood inactivity and obesity.

In addition to policies that directly require offering physical education in schools, other policies support physical education opportunities in schools. In the U. Although school districts are required to include goals for physical activity in their local school wellness policies, they are not required to address physical education specifically. Some policies have contributed to the substantial reduction in the opportunities for school-age children to be physically active, such as by shortening or eliminating physical education classes. These reductions can be attributed to budget cuts and increased pressure for schools to meet academic standards imposed by the federal government.

The No Child Left Behind Act of requires that states develop assessment and accountability measures to verify performance improvements in the subject areas of reading and mathematics P. Specifically, federal funding is now dependent on schools making adequate progress in reading and mathematics.

No Child Left Behind requires all public schools receiving federal funding to administer statewide standardized annual tests for all students.

Schools that receive Title I funding through the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of must make adequate yearly progress in test scores e. If required improvements are not made, schools are penalized through decreased funding. If a school produces poor results for 2 consecutive years, improvement plans must be developed for the school. If a school does not make adequate progress for 5 consecutive years, a full restructuring of the school is mandated.

In response to the act, schools have devoted more time in the school day to instruction in reading and mathematics. Unfortunately, 44 percent of school administrators reported that these increases in instructional time for reading and mathematics were achieved at the expense of time devoted to physical education, recess, art, music, and other subjects Center on Education Policy, , see Table The emphasis on high-stakes testing and pressure for academic achievement in the core subjects has had unintended consequences for other subjects throughout the school day.

As discussed earlier, however, no evidence suggests that physical education and physical activity have a negative effect on student achievement. On the contrary, positive academic-related outcomes e. The Center on Education Policy conducted an analysis of survey data from school districts on the amount of time devoted to specific subjects to determine the impact of the No Child Left Behind Act. Shifts in instructional time toward English language arts and mathematics and away from other subjects were relatively large in a majority of school districts that made these types of changes.

A higher proportion of urban districts 76 percent than rural districts 54 percent reported such increases. Districts that also reduced instructional time in other subjects reported total reductions of 32 percent, on average. Eight of 10 districts that reported increasing time for English language arts did so by at least 75 minutes per week, and more than half 54 percent did so by minutes or more per week.

Among districts that reported adding time for mathematics, 63 percent added at least 75 minutes per week, and 19 percent added minutes or more per week. Most districts that increased time for English language arts or mathematics also reported substantial cuts in time for other subjects or periods, including social studies, science, art and music, physical education, recess,. Among the districts that reported both increasing time for English language arts or mathematics and reducing time in other subjects, 72 percent indicated that they reduced the time for one or more of these other subjects by a total of at least 75 minutes per week.

For example, more than half 53 percent of these districts cut instructional time by at least 75 minutes per week in social studies, and the same percentage 53 percent cut time by at least 75 minutes per week in science Center on Education Policy, Districts that reported an increase in instructional time for elementary school English language arts spent an average of minutes per week on this subject before No Child Left Behind was enacted. After the act became law, they spent minutes per week.

The average increase for English language arts was minutes per week, or a 47 percent increase over the level prior to the act Center on Education Policy, ; see district survey items 18 and 19 in Table ITA. Table shows the specific amounts of time cut from various subjects in districts that reported decreases. For example, 51 percent of districts with a school in need of improvement reported decreased time in social studies, compared with 31 percent of districts with no school in need of improvement Center on Education Policy, The Shape of the Nation Report includes documentation of the multiple reasons students may be exempt from physical education classes.

Thirty-three states permit school districts or schools to allow students to substitute other activities for physical education. Although it would seem reasonable that some substitution programs such as JROTC or cheerleading might accrue physical activity comparable to that from physical education, these programs do not necessarily offer students opportunities to learn the knowledge and skills needed for lifelong participation in health-enhancing physical activities. No evidence currently exists showing that students receive any portion of the recommended 60 minutes or more of vigorous- or moderate-intensity physical activity through substituted activities sanctioned by their schools.

Barriers other than the policies detailed above hinder efforts to improve and maintain high-quality physical education. This section reviews these barriers, along with some solutions for overcoming them. Table lists institutional and teacher-related as well as student-related barriers identified by various authors. They identified three categories of barriers: Jenkinson and Benson surveyed secondary school physical education teachers in Victoria, Australia, and asked them to rank order the barriers they perceived to providing quality physical education.

The results are shown in Table Access to and lack of facilities a , h. Support from administration a , h. Insufficient number of PE staff a , e. Difficulty of providing safely planned and structured lessons d. High level of accountability for other subjects e. Confidence in teaching PE g , h , l. Personal school experiences in PE g , h. Low fitness levels, therefore potentially lower ability b. Jenkinson and Benson, Jenkinson and Benson also presented teachers with a list of barriers to student participation in physical education and physical activity in three categories: The teachers were asked to rank the top five barriers they perceived.

Results are presented in Table Finally, Gallo and colleagues found that the greatest process barriers to assessing students in physical education were grading students on skill levels and abilities; time constraints; class size; and record keeping, especially when assessing students on skills, cognitive knowledge, and fitness. Two key barriers to physical education identified in the studies summarized above are staffing and funding. These barriers reflect a lack of support structure in schools for quality physical education.

As noted earlier in this chapter, physical education is short staffed. State mandates have placed pressure on schools to preserve instructional resources for the high-stakes tested core subject areas at the expense of non-core subjects. For example, when a state mandates a maximum class size of 20 students per teacher in all core subjects, with noncompliance resulting in some form of penalty, an elementary school with an average of 25 students per teacher is forced to hire additional teachers in these subjects to meet the state mandate. Consequently, the school must shrink its teaching force in noncore subjects, such as physical education, to balance its budget.

If noncore classes are to be preserved, their class sizes must increase, with fewer teachers serving more students. As a result, it becomes difficult to implement a quality program, and physical education teachers perceive their programs as being undervalued. School-Based Physical Education and Sports Programs GAO, , school officials cite budget cuts and inadequate facilities as major challenges to providing physical education opportunities for students.

As noted earlier, lack of equipment and limited access to facilities are cited as top barriers in the study by Jenkinson and Benson see Tables and Students disengaged as a result of such practices may prefer sedentary activities to more active lifestyles. For many adolescents who have few opportunities to be active outside of the school day, quality physical education becomes the only option for physical activity. For students in large urban communities, physical education classes serve as a safe environment in which to be physically active under adult supervision in a structured environment.

For students with dis-. For these reasons, it is crucial to overcome the above barriers to quality physical education. Some school districts have found ways to do so and provide robust physical education programs. The barrier of limited time during the school day can be overcome through creative scheduling that makes use of every minute of the day in a constructive manner. For example, Miami-Dade County Public Schools is the fourth largest school district in the United States, in a large urban minority-majority community with large budgetary shortfalls and attention in schools being diverted to academic requirements.

Yet the district has always had daily physical education in its elementary schools taught by a certified physical education teacher. In addition, students receive school board—mandated recess for either 20 minutes two times per week or 15 minutes three times per week. Figures and show examples of elementary school teacher schedules that demonstrate how minutes of time for physical education can be incorporated successfully into any master schedule.

Other positive examples, identified in the report Physical Education Matters San Diego State University, , include successful case studies from low-resource California schools. The report acknowledges, however, that advancing such opportunities will require policy changes at the state, district, and local levels. These changes include securing grant funds with which to implement high-tech physical education wellness centers, staff commitment to professional development, administrative support, physical education being made a priority, community support, use of certified physical education teachers, and district support.

Identifying the need to reform physical education guided by evidence-based findings, the report concludes that 1 curriculum matters, 2 class size matters, 3 qualified teachers matter, 4 professional development matters, and 5 physical environment matters. If programs are to excel and students are to achieve, delivery of the curriculum must be activity based; class sizes must be commensurate with those for other subject areas; highly qualified physical education specialists, as opposed to classroom teachers, must be hired to deliver instruction; professional development in activity-focused physical education must be delivered; and school physical education facilities, such as playing fields and indoor gym space and equipment, must be available.

A separate report, Physical Education Matters: Success Stories from California Low Resource Schools That Have Achieved Excellent Physical Education Programs San Diego State University, , notes that when funding from a variety of grant resources, including federal funding, became available, schools were able to transition to high-quality programs using innovative instructional strategies.

Those strategies included well-. Sample is taken from a teacher schedule in a traditional elementary school. Administrative support was found to be a key factor in turning programs around, along with staff commitment and professional development. Having certified physical education teachers and making physical education a priority in the schools were other key factors. External factors further strengthened programs, including having school district support, having a physical education coordinator, and using state standards to provide accountability.

Additional ways to overcome the barriers to quality physical education include scheduling time for physical education, ensuring reasonable class size, providing nontraditional physical education activities, making classes more active and fun for all students, and acknowledging the importance of role modeling and personal investment and involvement in participation in physical activity among staff.

Still another way to overcome the barriers to quality physical education is to assist administrative decision makers and policy makers in understand-. The report Active Education: Physical education is a formal content area of study in schools, it is standards based, and it encompasses assessment according to standards and benchmarks. Select curriculum-based physical education programs have been described in this chapter to show the potential of high-quality physical education in developing children into active adults.

Such models provide the only opportunity for all school-age children to access health-enhancing physical activities. Curriculum models for physical education programs include movement education, which emphasizes the importance of fundamental motor skills competence as a prerequisite for engagement in physical activity throughout the life span; sport education, which emphasizes helping students become skillful players in lifetime sports of their choosing; and fitness education, which imparts physical fitness concepts to students, including the benefits and scientific principles of exercise, with the goal of developing and maintaining individual fitness and positive lifestyle change.

The emergence of a technology-focused fitness education curriculum and the new Presidential Youth Fitness Program offer further motivational opportunities for students to engage in lifelong physical activities. Because quality physical education programs are standards based and assessed, they are characterized by 1 instruction by certified physical education teachers, 2 a minimum of minutes per week for elementary schools and minutes per week for middle and high schools, and 3 tangible standards for student achievement and for high school graduation.

Quality professional development programs are an essential component for both novice and veteran teachers to ensure the continued delivery of quality physical education. Because physical education is not a high-stakes tested content area, the implementation of supportive policies often is hindered by other education priorities. Although the above analysis indicates that 30 states In addition, an unintended consequence of the No Child Left Behind Act has been disparities in access to physical education and physical activity opportunities during the school day for Hispanic students and those of lower socioeconomic status.

In high school, relying on students to elect physical education after meeting the minimum required credit hours one credit in all states but one appears to be unfruitful. Strengthening of school physical education has received support from the public, health agencies, and parents. Parents recently surveyed expressed favorable views of physical education. Additionally, many public and private organizations have proposed initiatives aimed at developing a comprehensive school-based strategy centered on curriculum physical education.

Foundations for active lifestyles. Physical education in schools—both quality and quantity are important: Energy cost of exergaming: A comparison of the energy cost of 6 forms of exergaming. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 7: Developing practice, developing practitioners: Toward a practice-based theory of professional development. In Teaching as the learning profession: Handbook of policy and practice, Jossey-Bass education series, edited by L.

Video games and stories for health-related behavior change. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 34 1: Self-reported barriers to quality physical education by physical education specialists in Texas. Journal of School Health 75 8: Estimated energy expenditures for school-based policies and active living. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 44 2: Characteristics of PETE doctoral level institutions: Descriptions of programs, faculty and doctoral students.

Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 30 2: Physical activity among adolescents and barriers to delivering physical education in Cornwall and Lancashire, UK: A qualitative study of heads of P. BMC Public Health 8 1: A comparison of high and low performing secondary physical education programs. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 22 5: The relationship of physical fitness and motor competence to physical activity.

Journal of Teaching in Physical Education 26 4: The association between school based physical activity, including physical education, and academic performance. Center on Education Policy. Choices, changes, and challenges: Curriculum and instruction in the NCLB era. A call to restructure restructuring: Is in-class physical activity at risk in constructivist physical education? Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 78 5: Content specificity of expectancy beliefs and task values in elementary physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport 79 2: Influences of personal and lesson factors on caloric expenditure in physical education.

Journal of Sport and Health Science 1 1: Instructional policy and classroom performance: The mathematics reform in California. This success is attributed to excess demand. These surveys found concern for:. The report showed some cases of successful voucher and subsidy programs; evaluations of international support to the sector are not widespread. Emerging approaches stress the importance of understanding the political economy of the market for LCPS, specifically how relationships of power and accountability between users, government, and private providers can produce better education outcomes for the poor.

Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. Although the terms "educational psychology" and "school psychology" are often used interchangeably, researchers and theorists are likely to be identified as educational psychologists , whereas practitioners in schools or school-related settings are identified as school psychologists.

Educational psychology is concerned with the processes of educational attainment in the general population and in sub-populations such as gifted children and those with specific disabilities. Educational psychology can in part be understood through its relationship with other disciplines. It is informed primarily by psychology , bearing a relationship to that discipline analogous to the relationship between medicine and biology. Educational psychology, in turn, informs a wide range of specialties within educational studies, including instructional design , educational technology , curriculum development, organizational learning , special education and classroom management.

Educational psychology both draws from and contributes to cognitive science and the learning sciences. Intelligence is an important factor in how the individual responds to education. Those who have higher intelligence tend to perform better at school and go on to higher levels of education. There has been much interest in learning modalities and styles over the last two decades. The most commonly employed learning modalities are: Other commonly employed modalities include musical , interpersonal , verbal , logical , and intrapersonal.

Dunn and Dunn [62] focused on identifying relevant stimuli that may influence learning and manipulating the school environment, at about the same time as Joseph Renzulli [63] recommended varying teaching strategies. Howard Gardner [64] identified a wide range of modalities in his Multiple Intelligences theories. The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator and Keirsey Temperament Sorter , based on the works of Jung , [65] focus on understanding how people's personality affects the way they interact personally, and how this affects the way individuals respond to each other within the learning environment.

Some theories propose that all individuals benefit from a variety of learning modalities, while others suggest that individuals may have preferred learning styles, learning more easily through visual or kinesthetic experiences. Educational neuroscience is an emerging scientific field that brings together researchers in cognitive neuroscience , developmental cognitive neuroscience , educational psychology , educational technology , education theory and other related disciplines to explore the interactions between biological processes and education.

Several academic institutions around the world are beginning to devote resources to the establishment of educational neuroscience research. As an academic field, philosophy of education is "the philosophical study of education and its problems That is, it may be part of the discipline in the sense of being concerned with the aims, forms, methods, or results of the process of educating or being educated; or it may be metadisciplinary in the sense of being concerned with the concepts, aims, and methods of the discipline.

There is no broad consensus as to what education's chief aim or aims are or should be. Some authors stress its value to the individual, emphasizing its potential for positively influencing students' personal development, promoting autonomy, forming a cultural identity or establishing a career or occupation.

Other authors emphasize education's contributions to societal purposes, including good citizenship, shaping students into productive members of society, thereby promoting society's general economic development, and preserving cultural values. In formal education, a curriculum is the set of courses and their content offered at a school or university.

As an idea, curriculum stems from the Latin word for race course , referring to the course of deeds and experiences through which children grow to become mature adults. A curriculum is prescriptive and is based on a more general syllabus which merely specifies what topics must be understood and to what level to achieve a particular grade or standard.

An academic discipline is a branch of knowledge which is formally taught, either at the university — or via some other such method. Each discipline usually has several sub-disciplines or branches, and distinguishing lines are often both arbitrary and ambiguous. Examples of broad areas of academic disciplines include the natural sciences , mathematics , computer science , social sciences , humanities and applied sciences. Educational institutions may incorporate fine arts as part of K grade curricula or within majors at colleges and universities as electives.

The various types of fine arts are music, dance, and theatre. The Sudbury Valley School offers a model of education without a curricula. Instruction is the facilitation of another's learning. Instructors in primary and secondary institutions are often called teachers , and they direct the education of students and might draw on many subjects like reading , writing , mathematics , science and history. Instructors in post-secondary institutions might be called teachers , instructors, or professors , depending on the type of institution; and they primarily teach only their specific discipline.

Studies from the United States suggest that the quality of teachers is the single most important factor affecting student performance, and that countries which score highly on international tests have multiple policies in place to ensure that the teachers they employ are as effective as possible.

A popular way to gauge teaching performance is to use student evaluations of teachers SETS , but these evaluations have been criticized for being counterproductive to learning and inaccurate due to student bias. He would show a the correct way to perform an action, b the incorrect way the player performed it, and again c the correct way to perform an action. This helped him to be a responsive teacher and fix errors on the fly. Also, less communication from him meant more time that the player could practice. It has been argued that high rates of education are essential for countries to be able to achieve high levels of economic growth.

However, technology transfer requires knowledgeable managers and engineers who are able to operate new machines or production practices borrowed from the leader in order to close the gap through imitation. Therefore, a country's ability to learn from the leader is a function of its stock of " human capital ". Recent study of the determinants of aggregate economic growth have stressed the importance of fundamental economic institutions [92] and the role of cognitive skills. At the level of the individual, there is a large literature, generally related to the work of Jacob Mincer , [94] on how earnings are related to the schooling and other human capital.

This work has motivated a large number of studies, but is also controversial. The chief controversies revolve around how to interpret the impact of schooling. Economists Samuel Bowles and Herbert Gintis argued in that there was a fundamental conflict in American schooling between the egalitarian goal of democratic participation and the inequalities implied by the continued profitability of capitalist production.

Many countries are now drastically changing the way they educate their citizens. The world is changing at an ever quickening rate, which means that a lot of knowledge becomes obsolete and inaccurate more quickly. The emphasis is therefore shifting to teaching the skills of learning: Finnish schools have even begun to move away from the regular subject-focused curricula, introducing instead developments like phenomenon-based learning, where students study concepts like climate change instead.

Education is also becoming a commodity no longer reserved for children. Adults need it too. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Education disambiguation.

Learning in which knowledge and skills is transferred through teaching. Higher education and Adult education. Open education and Educational technology. Curriculum , Curriculum theory , and List of academic disciplines. Education portal Schools portal University portal. The Mind of Egypt: History and Meaning in the Time of the Pharaohs. His Sound Bites Hold Up". Indigenous Education through Dance and Ceremony: Aztec Thought and Culture: A Study of the Ancient Nahuatl Mind. University of Oklahoma Press. Alternative Approaches to Educational Thought and Practice.

Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Publishers. Archived from the original on 15 October The Establishment of Preschool in the United States. The Journal of Higher Education. Elsevier Science and Technology. Institute of Education Sciences. Center for American Progress.

Retrieved 2 October Addressing Current Issues and Developments". Review of Research in Education. Informal Learning in Museums. The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences. Online learning can cost more than traditional education". The Chronicle of Higher Education. Out in the Open: Programme for International Student Assessment. Retrieved 25 June An evidence-informed approach PDF. Journal of International Cooperation in Education.

What drives donor financing of basic education? Archived from the original on 27 June Capacity development strategies Report. Archived from the original on 5 May Retrieved 1 October Journal of Construction in Developing Countries.

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