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Methodology; The study was conducted from June to December and included Staphylococcus aureus S.

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Out of isolates, MRSA was identified in When selected isolates were tested with molecular methods, the cefoxitin disk diffusion and PCR tests were comparable. Prevalence of MRSA Among all phenotypic methods, cefoxitin disk diffusion and PCR alone have similar sensitivity and specificity. Results of cefoxitin disk diffusion test are in concordance with the PCR for mecA gene. Members of family Enterobacteriaceae can acquire resistance to extended spectrum beta lactams by a number of mechanisms; most important being the plasmid encoded extended spectrum beta lactamase ESBL and AmpC beta lactamase.

This study has been designed to look for the presence of plasmids and their correlation with drug resistance. ESBL production was studied in different gram-negative bacteria and susceptibility testing of ESBL positive isolates was done for various beta lactams, cephalosporins and other commonly used drugs against them. Finally the presence of plasmid was correlated with susceptibility to beta lactam drugs. W greater than 21, bp was unanimously present in all the isolates. There is a strong correlation between the number of plasmids harbored by an isolate and resistance to various drugs tested.

The protease activity of different isolates of dermatophytes representing different ecological groups namely geophilic, zoopahilic and anthropophilic, in their vegetative and sporulation growth phases were compared. Unlike their geophilic and zoophilic counterparts, all the isolates of anthropophilic dermatophytes viz.

Even among the anthropophilic group, a classical moderation of protease activity was recorded in Trichyphyton rubrum which also correlates to its clinical manifestation. This enzyme moderation could also be an evolutionary adaptation of the anthropization of these species. Chromogenic media are frequently used in direct and rapid identification of yeasts because different Candida species produce unique colors on these media. We used 60 isolates of Candida species including 30 C. These strains had been identified by germ tube test, morphology on cornmeal agar, chlamydospore formation on tobacco agar and sugar assimilation tests.

The sensitivity and specificity results were: HiChrom Candida agaris medium has been useful and capable of presumptive, rapid identification of Candida species within 48 hours. Visceral leishmaniasis VL is endemic in India and may simulate and cause many hematological disorders like pancytopenia, myelofibrosis, myelodysplasia and hemophagocytosis. The study aims to investigate the hematological manifestation of Visceral Leishmaniasis and associated changes that may be observed in bone marrow aspirate smears and biopsy which may warn a pathologist of possible infections.

This is a retrospective study of 18 VL cases on B b one marrow aspirate and biopsy in the department of Pathology in a tertiary care teaching hospital in New Delhi. Giemsa stained slides of bone marrow aspirates and hematoxylin and Eosin stained biopsy slides were reviewed in detail by two competent pathologists. All the findings were tabulated and discussed and comparisons made with the previous similar studies. Hyper cellular marrow, increased lymphocytes and plasma cells, marrow granulomas, hemophagocytosis, myelofibrosis, myelodysplasia and gelatinous transformation of the marrow were notable features the presence of which together or individually should caution a pathologist to search for Leishman Donovan LD bodies in patients especially in a non-endemic zone in a tropical country.

The indicators of poor prognosis in cases of extrahepatic biliary atresia EHBA continue to remain controversial. To correlate the histopathological findings of wedge biopsy from liver and tissue obtained from the shaving at the porta hepatis, during hepatic portoenterostomy, with the clinical outcome. All cases of EHBA surgically treated in our hospital from to have been reviewed. Wedge biopsies of the liver and biopsies from the porta hepatis were analyzed with hemotoxylin-eosin stains and immunohistochemistry.

There was a highly significant correlation between the extent of fibrosis and clinical outcome.

Mild, moderate and severe fibrosis resulted in clinical control rates of A non-significant trend towards poorer outcome was seen with increasing age at surgery. Histopathological correl ations with clinical outcome in EHBA have been rarely reported from the Indian subcontinent. A greater degree of fibrosis at the time of hepatic portoenterostomy and presence of ductal plate malformation is associated with a significantly poorer clinical outcome. Serous microcystic adenoma SMCA is a rare pancreatic tumor with a striking predilection for elderly females and a rather unique morphology.

Classically, the tumor is riddled with innumerable small cysts around a stellate scar. The quintessential histological features are closely placed small cysts lined by glycogen rich cuboidal epithelium. In view of its excellent prognostic outcome, this tumor needs to be accurately diagnosed. This report documents a case of SMCA occurring in a year-old female. Intracranial hemangiopericytomas are rare tumors with aggressive behavior.

Other than the meninges, this lesion has rarely been reported in periventricular and sellar region. We report a case of malignant hemangiopericytoma in sellar region in a year-old male who presented with history of sudden onset of bilateral visual disturbances. To best of our knowledge, this is the second case report of malignant hemangiopericytoma in this location.

As this intracranial lesion shows aggressive behavior, in the form of recurrence or extracranial metastasis in comparison to its extracranial counterparts, diagnosis should be made cautiously. Intraductal papilloma is characterized by proliferation of epithelial and myoepithelial cells overlying fibro-vascular stalks creating an arborescent structure within the lumen of duct. Some times multiple papillomas with florid proliferation of epithelium may be confused with malignancy. A case of multiple intraductal papillomas of breast with ulceration of overlying skin and large lump leading to clinical diagnosis of malignancy is documented here.

A year-old female presented with ulcerated mass of six months duration in the left breast. There was no axillary lymphadenopathy. No family history of carcinoma breast was present. Fine needle aspiration smears showed benign cellular changes with apocrine metaplasia. Biopsy from an area adjacent to nipple showed intraductal papilloma. Simple mastectomy showed lobulated dirty white mass with well circumscribed nodules below the nipple and areola. On histology with immunohistochemistry a diagnosis of multiple intraductal papillomas was made.

Patient is on regular follow-up and doing well. The case highlights the problem in differentiating marked papillomatosis from a malignant lesion of breast and importance of biopsy with immunohistochemistry in such cases for proper management. Synovial sarcoma is a soft tissue neoplasm with a characteristic biphasic pattern. Intra articularly synovial sarcoma is extremely rare. We report a case of intra articular synovial sarcoma in a young male who presented as internal derangement of the knee. Meningeal chondroma is a rare intracranial neoplasm.

It is usually diagnosed clinically as meningioma. Histologically it may have a differential diagnosis of chordoid meningioma, a malignant lesion, and needs radiotherapy. A chondroma is a benign lesion where surgical removal is the treatment. A year-old female presented with symptoms of space occupying lesion which was clinically and radiologically considered meningioma. On histopathology, the lesion turned out to be a chondroma. Meningeal chondroma is a benign lesion for which surgical removal is the curative treatment. No further treatment in the form of radiation is required.

Although these tumors form two per cent of all ovarian tumors, they may create a diagnostic challenge in cytologic preparations. The tumor cells are not readily shed in the fluid. A case of a year-old woman with presence of granulosa tumor cells in ascitic fluid is presented. Because of its rarity, AGCTs can be confused with other ovarian tumors. Ameloblastoma is the best known and the most frequent form of odontogenic tumors. Calcifying epithelial odontogenic tumor CEOT , known as Pindborg tumor, is locally invasive lesion which has a characteristic amiloid deposition. Here a case of a peripheral ameloblastoma associated with CEOT is presented with clinical and morphological features.

Papillary carcinoma is the most common malignant tumor of the thyroid, especially in countries with adequate or excess iodine in diet. Many studies indicate that a sizable number of papillary cancer cases occur in a setting of chronic thyroiditis. But the tumor that arises more frequently in thyroiditis is malignant lymphoma. Fetus-in-fetu is a rare condition in which a fetiform calcified mass is often present in the abdomen of its host; a newborn or infant. We present the case of a three-month-old male baby with acute intestinal obstruction and abdominal mass.

X-ray abdomen and ultrasonogram revealed a cystic mass with calcification. On laparotomy, a well encapsulated retroperitoneal mass causing high intestinal obstruction was identified. Total excision of the mass was done. Diagnosis of fetus-in-fetu was confirmed on histopathology. Postoperative recovery was uneventful. We report a case of acral lentiginous melanoma on the plantar aspect of foot in a year-old male that exhibited a prominent osteo-cartilaginous differentiation in the metastatic inguinal lymph node.

The ability of melanomas to undergo multidirectional differentiation leads to a variety of histological appearances that can be misleading. Although the true nature of the tumor is most often recognized at the primary cutaneous site, metastatic tumors may closely mimic other malignant mesenchymal or neuro-ectodermal tumors. Hence awareness of this unusual phenomenon occurring in malignant melanoma is essential to avoid misdiagnosis.

Herpes simplex virus HSV infections in an immunocompromised host may be atypical in location and morphology. Lesions are more extensive and aggressive, slow healing or nonhealing and extremely painful. Intraoral lesions are ulcerative and may involve any intraoral, oropharyngeal, or esophageal site. Herpetic geometric glossitis is a recently described form of lingual HSV infection in an immunocompromised patient.

It was described as ulcer on the dorsum of the tongue sensitive for acyclovir therapy.

Kant's Account of Reason (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

A patient is presented with acute myelogenous leukemia that developed herpetic geometric glossitis which was acyclovir resistant. Breast carcinoma is uncommon in males and constitutes less than one per cent of all cancers in men. Invasive papillary carcinoma is a rare morphological type of breast cancer. Since papillary carcinoma has a favorable prognosis as compared to other histopathological subtypes, an accurate diagnosis is essential. We report two cases of this rare histological type of male breast cancer.

A year-old man presented with a lump in the central quadrant of right breast and underwent simple mastectomy. Histological examination showed features of invasive papillary carcinoma. The other case was of an year-old male patient with a subareolar mass in the right breast. Wide local excision of the lump showed features of an intracystic invasive papillary carcinoma. The patient subsequently underwent simple mastectomy, however, no residual tumor was found in the resection specimen.

Both the patients were free of disease at one year of follow-up. Invasive papillary carcinoma is an uncommon morphological type of breast cancer in males. The intracystic variant of papillary carcinoma is extremely unusual and may be missed on cytological examination. A thorough sampling is essential for an accurate diagnosis of invasion in these cases. Spontaneous ruptures of the colon and rectum are extremely uncommon clinical entities and always require laparotomy. A year-old female was admitted with a hour history of severe abdominal pain periumbilically and at the right hypochondrium.

The patient was immediately transferred to the department of surgery for close surgical observation. Computed tomography CT of the entire abdomen performed just before the operation demonstrated thickening of the wall of the ascending colon with pericolic fat stranding. Surgery revealed a perforation at the antimesenteric wall of the transverse colon and segmental colectomy of the transverse colon was performed. The histological evaluation demonstrated a perforated solitary ulcer of the transverse colon. There are only few known etiologic factors concerning spontaneous ruptures of the colon and rectum and usually none of these causative factors can easily be recognised.

Their clinical appearance is most of the times acute abdomen and, despite the use of all appropriate diagnostic methods, the diagnosis is usually set postoperatively. Intestinal metastasis from lung primary is very uncommon and seen at the terminal stage of the disease. Clinically, patients present as perforation or bleeding and rarely as intussusception.

We report the case of a year-old man who came with sudden onset of abdominal complaints of four to five days duration. A computerized tomography CT - scan abdomen showed mural thickening of short loop of jejunum with ileoileal intussusception. Resection-anastomosis revealed two separate nodules in the small intestine. The patient, a diagnosed case of primary carcinoma of lung seven months ago, had been treated with one cycle of chemotherapy.

Histopathology of the small intestinal nodules showed features of adenocarcinoma consistent with the known primary lung cancer. We present this case to arouse a clinical suspicion of intestinal metastasis in known cases of primary lung cancer presenting with the sudden onset of abdominal complaints.

Early diagnosis and management improves the survival of these patients. Xanthogranulomatous inflammation of gallbladder wall can extend and infiltrate adjacent organs which can be mistaken for malignancy on preoperative investigations and, intraoperatively, often leads to extensive surgical resections. The Church has the right to be a teacher for mankind, a teacher of the truth of faith: The word of the Gospel, in fact, is not only to be heard but is also to be observed and put into practice cf. Consistency in behaviour shows what one truly believes and is not limited only to things strictly church-related or spiritual but involves men and women in the entirety of their life experience and in the context of all their responsibilities.

However worldly these responsibilities may be, their subject remains man, that is, the human being whom God calls, by means of the Church, to participate in his gift of salvation. Men and women must respond to the gift of salvation not with a partial, abstract or merely verbal acceptance, but with the whole of their lives — in every relationship that defines life — so as not to neglect anything, leaving it in a profane and worldly realm where it is irrelevant or foreign to salvation. For this reason the Church's social doctrine is not a privilege for her, nor a digression, a convenience or interference: This right of the Church is at the same time a duty, because she cannot forsake this responsibility without denying herself and her fidelity to Christ: The warning that St.

Paul addresses to himself rings in the Church's conscience as a call to walk all paths of evangelization, not only those that lead to individual consciences but also those that wind their way into public institutions: Because of the public relevance of the Gospel and faith, because of the corrupting effects of injustice, that is, of sin, the Church cannot remain indifferent to social matters [98]: Knowledge illuminated by faith. The Church's social doctrine was not initially thought of as an organic system but was formed over the course of time, through the numerous interventions of the Magisterium on social issues.

The fact that it came about in this manner makes it understandable that certain changes may have taken place with regard to its nature, method and epistemological structure.

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With significant allusions already being made in Laborem Exercens [], a decisive clarification in this regard was made in the Encyclical Sollicitudo Rei Socialis: It cannot be defined according to socio-economic parameters. It is not an ideological or pragmatic system intended to define and generate economic, political and social relationships, but is a category unto itself.

In fact, this social doctrine reflects three levels of theological-moral teaching: These three levels implicitly define also the proper method and specific epistemological structure of the social doctrine of the Church. The Church's social doctrine finds its essential foundation in biblical revelation and in the tradition of the Church. From this source, which comes from above, it draws inspiration and light to understand, judge and guide human experience and history. Before anything else and above everything else is God's plan for the created world and, in particular, for the life and destiny of men and women, called to Trinitarian communion.

Faith, which receives the divine word and puts it into practice, effectively interacts with reason. The understanding of faith, especially faith leading to practical action, is structured by reason and makes use of every contribution that reason has to offer. Faith and reason represent the two cognitive paths of the Church's social doctrine: Revelation and human nature.

This understanding of faith includes reason, by means of which — insofar as possible — it unravels and comprehends revealed truth and integrates it with the truth of human nature, found in the divine plan expressed in creation[]. This is the integral truth of the human person as a spiritual and corporeal being, in relationship with God, with other human beings and with other creatures[].

Being centred on the mystery of Christ, moreover, does not weaken or exclude the role of reason and hence does not deprive the Church's social doctrine of rationality or, therefore, of universal applicability. Since the mystery of Christ illuminates the mystery of man, it gives fullness of meaning to human dignity and to the ethical requirements which defend it. The Church's social doctrine is knowledge enlightened by faith, which, as such, is the expression of a greater capacity for knowledge.

It explains to all people the truths that it affirms and the duties that it demands; it can be accepted and shared by all. In friendly dialogue with all branches of knowledge. The Church's social doctrine avails itself of contributions from all branches of knowledge, whatever their source, and has an important interdisciplinary dimension.

The social doctrine makes use of the significant contributions of philosophy as well as the descriptive contributions of the human sciences. Above all, the contribution of philosophy is essential. This contribution has already been seen in the appeal to human nature as a source and to reason as the cognitive path of faith itself.

By means of reason, the Church's social doctrine espouses philosophy in its own internal logic, in other words, in the argumentation that is proper to it. Affirming that the Church's social doctrine is part of theology rather than philosophy does not imply a disowning or underestimation of the role or contribution of philosophy. In fact, philosophy is a suitable and indispensable instrument for arriving at a correct understanding of the basic concepts of the Church's social doctrine , concepts such as the person, society, freedom, conscience, ethics, law, justice, the common good, solidarity, subsidiarity, the State.

This understanding is such that it inspires harmonious living in society. It is philosophy once more that shows the reasonableness and acceptability of shining the light of the Gospel on society, and that inspires in every mind and conscience openness and assent to the truth. A significant contribution to the Church's social doctrine comes also from human sciences and the social sciences[].

In view of that particular part of the truth that it may reveal, no branch of knowledge is excluded. The Church recognizes and receives everything that contributes to the understanding of man in the ever broader, more fluid and more complex net work of his social relationships. She is aware of the fact that a profound understanding of man does not come from theology alone, without the contributions of many branches of knowledge to which theology itself refers.

This attentive and constant openness to other branches of knowledge makes the Church's social doctrine reliable, concrete and relevant. Thanks to the sciences, the Church can gain a more precise understanding of man in society, speak to the men and women of her own day in a more convincing manner and more effectively fulfil her task of incarnating in the conscience and social responsibility of our time, the word of God and the faith from which social doctrine flows[].

An expression of the Church's ministry of teaching. The social doctrine belongs to the Church because the Church is the subject that formulates it, disseminates it and teaches it. It is not a prerogative of a certain component of the ecclesial body but of the entire community; it is the expression of the way that the Church understands society and of her position regarding social structures and changes.

The whole of the Church community — priests, religious and laity — participates in the formulation of this social doctrine, each according to the different tasks, charisms and ministries found within her. The Church's social doctrine is not only the thought or work of qualified persons, but is the thought of the Church, insofar as it is the work of the Magisterium, which teaches with the authority that Christ conferred on the Apostles and their successors: In the Church's social doctrine the Magisterium is at work in all its various components and expressions.

Of primary importance is the universal Magisterium of the Pope and the Council: This doctrine in turn is integrated into the Magisterium of the Bishops who, in the concrete and particular situations of the many different local circumstances, give precise definition to this teaching, translating it and putting it into practice[]. The social teaching of the Bishops offers valid contributions and impetus to the Magisterium of the Roman Pontiff.

In this way, there is a circulating at work that in fact expresses the collegiality of the Church's Pastors united to the Pope in the Church's social teaching. The doctrinal body that emerges includes and integrates in this fashion the universal teaching of the Popes and the particular teaching of the Bishops.

Insofar as it is part of the Church's moral teaching, the Church's social doctrine has the same dignity and authority as her moral teaching. It is authentic Magisterium , which obligates the faithful to adhere to it[]. The doctrinal weight of the different teachings and the assent required are determined by the nature of the particular teachings, by their level of independence from contingent and variable elements, and by the frequency with which they are invoked[].

Critique of Practical Reason, 4th revised ed.[Translated] (With Active Table of Contents)

For a society reconciled in justice and love. The object of the Church's social doctrine is essentially the same that constitutes the reason for its existence: By means of her social doctrine, the Church shows her concern for human life in society, aware that the quality of social life — that is, of the relationships of justice and love that form the fabric of society — depends in a decisive manner on the protection and promotion of the human person, for whom every community comes into existence.

In fact, at play in society are the dignity and rights of the person, and peace in the relationships between persons and between communities of persons. These are goods that the social community must pursue and guarantee. In this perspective, the Church's social doctrine has the task of proclamation , but also of denunciation.

In the first place it is the proclamation of what the Church possesses as proper to herself: This is done not only on the level of principles but also in practice. The Church's social doctrine, in fact, offers not only meaning, value and criteria of judgment, but also the norms and directives of action that arise from these[]. With her social doctrine the Church does not attempt to structure or organize society, but to appeal to, guide and form consciences. This social doctrine also entails a duty to denounce , when sin is present: By denunciation, the Church's social doctrine becomes judge and defender of unrecognized and violated rights, especially those of the poor, the least and the weak[].

The more these rights are ignored or trampled, the greater becomes the extent of violence and injustice, involving entire categories of people and large geographical areas of the world, thus giving rise to social questions , that is, to abuses and imbalances that lead to social upheaval. A large part of the Church's social teaching is solicited and determined by important social questions, to which social justice is the proper answer.

The intent of the Church's social doctrine is of the religious and moral order []. A message for the sons and daughters of the Church and for humanity. The first recipient of the Church's social doctrine is the Church community in its entire membership, because everyone has social responsibilities that must be fulfilled. The conscience is called by this social teaching to recognize and fulfil the obligations of justice and charity in society. This doctrine is a light of moral truth that inspires appropriate responses according to the vocation and ministry of each Christian.

In the tasks of evangelization, that is to say, of teaching, catechesis and formation that the Church's social doctrine inspires, it is addressed to every Christian, each according to the competence, charisms, office and mission of proclamation that is proper to each one[]. This social doctrine implies as well responsibilities regarding the building, organization and functioning of society, that is to say, political, economic and administrative obligations — obligations of a secular nature — which belong to the lay faithful, not to priests or religious[].

These responsibilities belong to the laity in a distinctive manner, by reason of the secular condition of their state of life, and of the secular nature of their vocation[]. By fulfilling these responsibilities, the lay faithful put the Church's social teaching into action and thus fulfil the Church's secular mission[]. Besides being destined primarily and specifically to the sons and daughters of the Church, her social doctrine also has a universal destination.

The light of the Gospel that the Church's social doctrine shines on society illuminates all men and women, and every conscience and mind is in a position to grasp the human depths of meaning and values expressed in it and the potential of humanity and humanization contained in its norms of action.

It is to all people — in the name of mankind, of human dignity which is one and unique, and of humanity's care and promotion of society — to everyone in the name of the one God, Creator and ultimate end of man, that the Church's social doctrine is addressed[]. This social doctrine is a teaching explicitly addressed to all people of good will [], and in fact is heard by members of other Churches and Ecclesial Communities, by followers of other religious traditions and by people who belong to no religious group.

Guided by the perennial light of the Gospel and ever attentive to evolution of society, the Church's social doctrine is characterized by continuity and renewal []. It shows above all the continuity of a teaching that refers to the universal values drawn from Revelation and human nature. This is the foundational and permanent nucleus of the Church's social doctrine, by which it moves through history without being conditioned by history or running the risk of fading away.

On the other hand, in its constant turning to history and in engaging the events taking place, the Church's social doctrine shows a capacity for continuous renewal. Standing firm in its principles does not make it a rigid teaching system, but a Magisterium capable of opening itself to new things , without having its nature altered by them[]. Faith does not presume to confine changeable social and political realities within a closed framework[]. Rather, the contrary is true: Mother and Teacher, the Church does not close herself off nor retreat within herself but is always open, reaching out to and turned towards man, whose destiny of salvation is her reason for being.

She is in the midst of men and women as the living icon of the Good Shepherd, who goes in search of and finds man where he is, in the existential and historical circumstances of his life. It is there that the Church becomes for man a point of contact with the Gospel, with the message of liberation and reconciliation, of justice and peace. The beginning of a new path. The Church's concern for social matters certainly did not begin with that document, for the Church has never failed to show interest in society.

Nonetheless, the Encyclical Letter Rerum Novarum marks the beginning of a new path. Grafting itself onto a tradition hundreds of years old, it signals a new beginning and a singular development of the Church's teaching in the area of social matters[]. In her continuous attention to men and women living in society, the Church has accumulated a rich doctrinal heritage.

This has its roots in Sacred Scripture, especially the Gospels and the apostolic writings, and takes on shape and body beginning from the Fathers of the Church and the great Doctors of the Middle Ages, constituting a doctrine in which, even without explicit and direct Magisterial pronouncements, the Church gradually came to recognize her competence. In the nineteenth century, events of an economic nature produced a dramatic social, political and cultural impact. Events connected with the Industrial Revolution profoundly changed centuries-old societal structures, raising serious problems of justice and posing the first great social question — the labour question — prompted by the conflict between capital and labour.

In this context, the Church felt the need to become involved and intervene in a new way: A new discernment of the situation was needed, a discernment capable of finding appropriate solutions to unfamiliar and unexplored problems. From Rerum Novarum to our own day. This Encyclical examines the condition of salaried workers, which was particularly distressing for industrial labourers who languished in inhumane misery. The labour question is dealt with according to its true dimensions.

It is explored in all its social and political expressions so that a proper evaluation may be made in the light of the doctrinal principles founded on Revelation and on natural law and morality. Rerum Novarum became the document inspiring Christian activity in the social sphere and the point of reference for this activity []. The Encyclical's central theme is the just ordering of society, in view of which there is the obligation to identify criteria of judgment that will help to evaluate existing socio-political systems and to suggest lines of action for their appropriate transformation.

The principles affirmed by Pope Leo XIII would be taken up again and studied more deeply in successive social encyclicals. The whole of the Church's social doctrine can be seen as an updating, a deeper analysis and an expansion of the original nucleus of principles presented in Rerum Novarum. At the beginning of the s, following the grave economic crisis of , Pope Pius XI published the Encyclical Quadragesimo Anno [], commemorating the fortieth anniversary of Rerum Novarum.

Table of Contents: Part 1 – Back to the Basics

The Pope reread the past in the light of the economic and social situation in which the expansion of the influence of financial groups, both nationally and internationally, was added to the effects of industrialization. It was the post-war period, during which totalitarian regimes were being imposed in Europe even as the class struggle was becoming more bitter. The Encyclical warns about the failure to respect the freedom to form associations and stresses the principles of solidarity and cooperation in order to overcome social contradictions.

The relationships between capital and labour must be characterized by cooperation[]. Quadragesimo Anno confirms the principle that salaries should be proportional not only to the needs of the worker but also to those of the worker's family. The State, in its relations with the private sector, should apply the principle of subsidiarity , a principle that will become a permanent element of the Church's social doctrine. The Encyclical rejects liberalism, understood as unlimited competition between economic forces, and reconfirms the value of private property, recalling its social function.

Pope Pius XI did not fail to raise his voice against the totalitarian regimes that were being imposed in Europe during his pontificate. Already on 29 June he had protested against the abuse of power by the totalitarian fascist regime in Italy with the Encyclical Non Abbiamo Bisogno []. The text of Mit Brennender Sorge was read from the pulpit of every Catholic Church in Germany, after having been distributed in the greatest of secrecy. The Encyclical came out after years of abuse and violence, and it had been expressly requested from Pope Pius XI by the German Bishops after the Reich had implemented ever more coercive and repressive measures in , particularly with regard to young people, who were required to enrol as members of the Hitler Youth Movement.

The Pope spoke directly to priests, religious and lay faithful, giving them encouragement and calling them to resistance until such time that a true peace between Church and State would be restored. In the Christmas Radio Messages of Pope Pius XII[], together with other important interventions in social matters, Magisterial reflection on a new social order guided by morality and law, and focusing on justice and peace, become deeper.

His pontificate covered the terrible years of the Second World War and the difficult years of reconstruction. He published no social encyclicals but in many different contexts he constantly showed his concern for the international order, which had been badly shaken. One of the characteristics of Pope Pius XII's interventions is the importance he gave to the relationship between morality and law. He insisted on the notion of natural law as the soul of the system to be established on both the national and the international levels.

Another important aspect of Pope Pius XII's teaching was his attention to the professional and business classes, called to work together in a special way for the attainment of the common good. The s bring promising prospects: The social question is becoming universal and involves all countries: Inequalities that in the past were experienced within nations are now becoming international and make the dramatic situation of the Third World ever more evident.

The key words in the Encyclical are community and socialization []: In this way economic growth will not be limited to satisfying men's needs, but it will also promote their dignity. Moreover, Pacem in Terris contains one of the first in-depth reflections on rights on the part of the Church; it is the Encyclical of peace and human dignity. It continues and completes the discussion presented in Mater et Magistra , and, continuing in the direction indicated by Pope Leo XIII, it emphasizes the importance of the cooperation of all men and women.

On the tenth anniversary of Pacem in Terris , Cardinal Maurice Roy, the President of the Pontifical Commission for Justice and Peace, sent Pope Paul VI a letter together with a document with a series of reflections on the different possibilities afforded by the teaching contained in Pope John XXIII's Encyclical for shedding light on the new problems connected with the promotion of peace[].

The Pastoral Constitution Gaudium et Spes [] of the Second Vatican Council is a significant response of the Church to the expectations of the contemporary world. Gaudium et Spes presents in a systematic manner the themes of culture, of economic and social life, of marriage and the family, of the political community, of peace and the community of peoples, in the light of a Christian anthropological outlook and of the Church's mission. For the first time, the Magisterium of the Church, at its highest level, speaks at great length about the different temporal aspects of Christian life: Another very important document of the Second Vatican Council in the corpus of the Church's social doctrine is the Declaration Dignitatis Humanae [], in which the right to religious freedom is clearly proclaimed.

The document presents the theme in two chapters. The first, of a general character, affirms that religious freedom is based on the dignity of the human person and that it must be sanctioned as a civil right in the legal order of society. The second chapter deals with the theme in the light of Revelation and clarifies its pastoral implications, pointing out that it is a right that concerns not only people as individuals but also the different communities of people.

In particular, it presents the outlines of an integral development of man and of a development in solidarity with all humanity: This same Pontiff started the tradition of writing annual Messages that deal with the theme chosen for each World Day of Peace. These Messages expand and enrich the corpus of the Church's social doctrine. At the beginning of the s, in a climate of turbulence and strong ideological controversy, Pope Paul VI returns to the social teaching of Pope Leo XIII and updates it, on the occasion of the eightieth anniversary of Rerum Novarum , with his Apostolic Letter Octogesima Adveniens [].

The Pope reflects on post-industrial society with all of its complex problems, noting the inadequacy of ideologies in responding to these challenges: Ninety years after Rerum Novarum , Pope John Paul II devoted the Encyclical Laborem Exercens [] to work , the fundamental good of the human person, the primary element of economic activity and the key to the entire social question. Laborem Exercens outlines a spirituality and ethic of work in the context of a profound theological and philosophical reflection.

Work must not be understood only in the objective and material sense, but one must keep in mind its subjective dimension, insofar as it is always an expression of the person. Besides being a decisive paradigm for social life, work has all the dignity of being a context in which the person's natural and supernatural vocation must find fulfilment.

With the Encyclical Sollicitudo Rei Socialis [], Pope John Paul II commemorates the twentieth anniversary of Populorum Progressio and deals once more with the theme of development along two fundamental lines: On the hundredth anniversary of Rerum Novarum , Pope John Paul II promulgates his third social encyclical, Centesimus Annus [], whence emerges the doctrinal continuity of a hundred years of the Church's social Magisterium. Taking up anew one of the fundamental principles of the Christian view of social and political organization, which had been the central theme of the previous Encyclical, the Pope writes: Pope John Paul II demonstrates how the Church's social teaching moves along the axis of reciprocity between God and man: The documents referred to here constitute the milestones of the path travelled by the Church's social doctrine from the time of Pope Leo XIII to our own day.

In the formulation and teaching of this social doctrine, the Church has been, and continues to be, prompted not by theoretical motivation but by pastoral concerns. The Church sees in men and women, in every person, the living image of God himself. This image finds, and must always find anew, an ever deeper and fuller unfolding of itself in the mystery of Christ, the Perfect Image of God, the One who reveals God to man and man to himself.

It is to these men and women, who have received an incomparable and inalienable dignity from God himself, that the Church speaks, rendering to them the highest and most singular service, constantly reminding them of their lofty vocation so that they may always be mindful of it and worthy of it.

All of social life is an expression of its unmistakable protagonist: The Church has many times and in many ways been the authoritative advocate of this understanding, recognizing and affirming the centrality of the human person in every sector and expression of society: The origin of social life is therefore found in the human person, and society cannot refuse to recognize its active and responsible subject; every expression of society must be directed towards the human person.

Men and women, in the concrete circumstances of history, represent the heart and soul of Catholic social thought []. The whole of the Church's social doctrine, in fact, develops from the principle that affirms the inviolable dignity of the human person []. In her manifold expressions of this knowledge, the Church has striven above all to defend human dignity in the face of every attempt to redimension or distort its image; moreover she has often denounced the many violations of human dignity. History attests that it is from the fabric of social relationships that there arise some of the best possibilities for ennobling the human person, but it is also there that lie in wait the most loathsome rejections of human dignity.

Creatures in the image of God. The fundamental message of Sacred Scripture proclaims that the human person is a creature of God cf. God places the human creature at the centre and summit of the created order. He is capable of self-knowledge, of self-possession and of freely giving himself and entering into communion with other persons. The likeness with God shows that the essence and existence of man are constitutively related to God in the most profound manner. The whole of man's life is a quest and a search for God. This relationship with God can be ignored or even forgotten or dismissed, but it can never be eliminated.

The relationship between God and man is reflected in the relational and social dimension of human nature. In this regard the fact that God created human beings as man and woman cf. Only the appearance of the woman, a being who is flesh of his flesh and bone of his bones cf. In a relationship of mutual communion, man and woman fulfil themselves in a profound way, rediscovering themselves as persons through the sincere gift of themselves[].

Their covenant of union is presented in Sacred Scripture as an image of the Covenant of God with man cf. Hos ; Is 54; Eph 5: Indeed, the human couple can participate in God's act of creation: Man and woman are in relationship with others above all as those to whom the lives of others have been entrusted []. I will require it In this perspective, the relationship with God requires that the life of man be considered sacred and inviolable [].

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The respect owed to the inviolability and integrity of physical life finds its climax in the positive commandment: With this specific vocation to life, man and woman find themselves also in the presence of all the other creatures. They can and are obliged to put them at their own service and to enjoy them, but their dominion over the world requires the exercise of responsibility, it is not a freedom of arbitrary and selfish exploitation. Man must discover and respect its value. This is a marvellous challenge to his intellect, which should lift him up as on wings [] towards the contemplation of the truth of all God's creatures, that is, the contemplation of what God sees as good in them.

The Book of Genesis teaches that human dominion over the world consists in naming things cf. In giving things their names, man must recognize them for what they are and establish with each of them a relationship of responsibility[]. Man is also in relationship with himself and is able to reflect on himself. Sacred Scripture speaks in this regard about the heart of man.

The heart designates man's inner spirituality, what distinguishes him from every other creature. In the end, the heart indicates the spiritual faculties which most properly belong to man, which are his prerogatives insofar as he is created in the image of his Creator: When he listens to the deep aspirations of his heart, no person can fail to make his own the words of truth expressed by Saint Augustine: This marvellous vision of man's creation by God is inseparable from the tragic appearance of original sin.

With a clear affirmation the Apostle Paul sums up the account of man's fall contained in the first pages of the Bible: Man, against God's prohibition, allows himself to be seduced by the serpent and stretches out his hand to the tree of life, falling prey to death. By this gesture, man tries to break through his limits as a creature, challenging God, his sole Lord and the source of his life.

It is a sin of disobedience cf. From revelation we know that Adam, the first man, transgresses God's commandment and loses the holiness and justice in which he was made, holiness and justice which were received not only for himself but for all of humanity: At the root of personal and social divisions, which in differing degrees offend the value and dignity of the human person, there is a wound which is present in man's inmost self. The consequences of sin, insofar as it is an act of separation from God, are alienation, that is, the separation of man not only from God but also from himself, from other men and from the world around him.

Thus the subsequent pages of Genesis show us the man and the woman as it were pointing an accusing finger at each other cf. Later we have brother hating brother and finally taking his brother's life cf. Reflecting on the mystery of sin, we cannot fail to take into consideration this tragic connection between cause and effect. The mystery of sin is composed of a twofold wound, which the sinner opens in his own side and in the relationship with his neighbour.

That is why we can speak of personal and social sin. Every sin is personal under a certain aspect; under another, every sin is social, insofar as and because it also has social consequences. In its true sense, sin is always an act of the person, because it is the free act of an individual person and not properly speaking of a group or community.

It is not, however, legitimate or acceptable to understand social sin in a way that, more or less consciously, leads to a weakening or the virtual cancellation of the personal component by admitting only social guilt and responsibility. At the bottom of every situation of sin there is always the individual who sins. Certain sins, moreover, constitute by their very object a direct assault on one's neighbour.

Such sins in particular are known as social sins. Social sin is every sin committed against the justice due in relations between individuals, between the individual and the community, and also between the community and the individual. Social too is every sin against the rights of the human person, starting with the right to life, including that of life in the womb, and every sin against the physical integrity of the individual; every sin against the freedom of others, especially against the supreme freedom to believe in God and worship him; and every sin against the dignity and honour of one's neighbour.

Every sin against the common good and its demands, in the whole broad area of rights and duties of citizens, is also social sin. The consequences of sin perpetuate the structures of sin. These are rooted in personal sin and, therefore, are always connected to concrete acts of the individuals who commit them, consolidate them and make it difficult to remove them. It is thus that they grow stronger, spread and become sources of other sins, conditioning human conduct[].

These are obstacles and conditioning that go well beyond the actions and brief life span of the individual and interfere also in the process of the development of peoples, the delay and slow pace of which must be judged in this light[]. The actions and attitudes opposed to the will of God and the good of neighbour, as well as the structures arising from such behaviour, appear to fall into two categories today: In order to characterize better each of these attitudes, one can add the expression: The doctrine of original sin, which teaches the universality of sin, has an important foundation: This doctrine encourages men and women not to remain in guilt and not to take guilt lightly, continuously seeking scapegoats in other people and justification in the environment, in heredity, in institutions, in structures and in relationships.

This is a teaching that unmasks such deceptions. The doctrine of the universality of sin, however, must not be separated from the consciousness of the universality of salvation in Jesus Christ. If it is so separated it engenders a false anxiety of sin and a pessimistic view of the world and life, which leads to contempt of the cultural and civil accomplishments of mankind. Christian realism sees the abysses of sin, but in the light of the hope, greater than any evil, given by Jesus Christ's act of redemption, in which sin and death are destroyed cf.

It is Christ, the image of God cf. The Word that became man in Jesus Christ has always been mankind's life and light, the light that enlightens every person cf. God desires in the one mediator Jesus Christ, his Son, the salvation of all men and women cf. Jesus is at the same time the Son of God and the new Adam, that is, the new man cf. The new reality that Jesus Christ gives us is not grafted onto human nature nor is it added from outside: But this is also a reality that people cannot attain by their own forces alone.

Through the Spirit of Jesus Christ, the incarnate Son of God, in whom this reality of communion has already been brought about in a singular manner, men and women are received as children of God cf. The universality of this hope also includes, besides the men and women of all peoples, heaven and earth: Wir freuen uns schon auf die weitere Zusammenarbeit! Some arrive perfect, but others are sometimes in a terrible state - wrong colour spacing, no bleed, low resolution, and so on. There they have the ability and experience to grasp the problem, and then adjust the files to reflect what the client intended, so that production can go ahead with minimum delay.

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