Lera globale: linguaggi, paradigmi, culture politiche (Sociologia) (Italian Edition)

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Thus, it can be argued that social constructivism, and by extension ANT, favors a collective approach to identity and its construction due to its concepts of network and translation. The central notion of an actor or agent or actant is understood to include both human and nonhuman agents: The network has no centre, all the elements are interdependent. Important roles are played by knowledge systems and by economic factors, as well as by people and by technical aids. Causality is not unidirectional: The theory distinguishes various kinds of relation between the nodes of a network […].

The interaction between agents or actants is called translation , a concept which ANT borrows from Michel Serres, as Barry Intermediaries do not affect the forces and meanings they are to transfer but mediators can modify them Latour, Thus, the identity of actants is dependent on their roles as mediator or intermediary, which can also change into each other. Most theories are developed by theorists through the evaluation of previous theories and approaches. Bourdieusian approaches tend to reduce the agent to the translator, and only consider agency from the individualistic perspective Buzelin Starting from a general assumption of the existence of distinctions between Western and Eastern identities, we conducted an identity survey of Iranian and Italian undergraduate trainee translators, to test our hypotheses and to see to what extent the findings would fall within Bourdieu and ANT theories.

Additionally, the correlation between personal, social and professional identities among students was briefly examined. A total of trainee translators participated in our survey: The students were from four Iranian and four Italian universities: The age and gender distribution of the two groups of students are given in Tables 1 and 2 below.

AIQ-IV is a questionnaire that measures identity orientation in the four aspects of personal, relational, social and collective identities. In the original AIQ-IV questionnaire, there are 10 special items that are not scored on scales, two of which were included in our modified questionnaire. The research population was provided with the online questionnaire with an extended time period within which to respond and the responses were recorded both separately for each respondent and in a summary of all responses. To help our analysis, the responses of Iranian and Italian students were recorded separately.

Then, the total mean scores were compared and interpreted. Additionally, based on the total scores of the responses to each item, items that showed marked distinctions among the two groups of students were singled out as potential indicators of a number of meaningful and enlightening contrasts. Comparing the mean values for all items, the items whose mean scores showed a certain variation were identified and marked for this purpose. The procedure was as follows: The resultant criterion values were. Finally, a microanalysis of identity scores based on three age groups of 19 or younger, male , and years old was carried out in order to find out more about the correlation of the identity aspects.

Figure 1 compares Iranian and Italian undergraduate translator trainees in three aspects of their identities. A Comparison of trainee translators' three identity aspects based on mean Likert scale values. As Figure 1 shows, the Iranian and Italian students surveyed in this study, show a contrast in terms of their personal and social identities where the former tend to have a stronger social identity and the latter a more marked sense of personal identity.

This implies that Italian students are more inclined towards individualism and self-dependence while Iranian students prefer interdependence; a difference that may reflect overall differences between Iranian and Italian, or Eastern and Western, societies. As for the correlation between personal and social identities with professional identity, no meaningful correlation was observed, indicating that either there are more factors that have to be taken into account or some complementary data is required.

We stated above that a special analysis was carried out of those items which produced significantly different based on the overall scores between Iranians and Italians. The following items were selected for further interpretation in each aspect of identity. My personal values and moral standards Item 7: Places where I live or where I was raised. A comparison of personal identity marked items using mean Liker scale values. The Iranian students' score was significantly higher than their Italian counterparts in Item 1 but lower in Item 7, which might indicate that although Iranian students display a somewhat more social and less personal identity orientation, they might care more their values and morality issues.

On the other hand Italian students felt more intensely and emotionally about their living environments. A comparison of social identity marked items using mean Likert scale values. The results shown in Figure 3 imply that Italians are less concerned about their social popularity. Popularity, as social capital, is a way to earn symbolic capital, which in turn can be arguably converted into other types of capital, particularly cultural capital.

There were two items identified as marked with respect to professional identity, which are listed below:. Being considered a reliable and organized co-worker Item My future job despite its difficulties and low income. A comparison of professional identity marked items using mean Likert scale values.

Although Italian students showed a higher propensity for individual work, they seem to value professional qualities when working with other people to a higher extent, which is indicated in Item 23; they consider it more important to be valuable co-workers through being reliable and organized. Being reliable is a highly interpersonal attribute while being organized tends to be a personal characteristic yet with palpable outcomes for the people around us. Furthermore, in reference to Item 24, Italian students seemed to consider their future job much more important than Iranian students, a result which could imply two things: Overall, in the majority of the professional identity items, the Italian students demonstrated a stronger orientation, which may indicate that they generally have a better image of their field-related abilities and prospects for developing their careers in translation.

As a final step in this survey, we explored the correlation between personal and social identity aspects on the one hand with professional identity on the other. To this end, three age groups of trainee translators were compared in terms of their mean identity scores. Figure 5 and Figure 6 display the findings, indicating a chiefly positive correlation between the three identity aspects in the age groups analyzed — except for Italian students of 19 years or younger.

Another finding was that because the comparison of the mean scores of personal and social identities in these three age groups did not differ significantly across the two national groups, we can conclude that the excluded age group, female students aged , had a significant influence on the overall identity variation between Iranian and Italian students. The different items of the questionnaire, as well as the identity aspects it addressed, were related to the concepts discussed in the sociological theories.

The results of our empirical analysis point to a stronger social identity and habitus for Iranian students and a stronger personal and professional identity orientation and habitus on the part of the Italian students; a result which suggests that social activities in translator training may be particularly suitable in an Iranian context, while personal activities maybe more suitable when training translators in an Italian context. In addition, we found a predominantly positive correlation between personal and social identities with professional identity among the age groups we decided to study for the purpose of correlation analysis.

With reference to our research questions, we are now in a position to draw some conclusions: An implication of this study in translator training might be that once we understand that different societies have different conceptions of identity as well as various identities and identity construction patterns — for example, the general distinction between individualistic Western and the social Eastern identity — then our training priorities will differ, with implications for our translation curricula, pedagogies and teaching methods. Additionally, the types of power distribution observed in the two theories have clear implications for the description of educational practices, including translator training.

Introducing the two sociologies into the classroom allows learners to experience different identity constructions, which is recommended today. We would like to extend our deep gratitude to Prof. Marcello Soffritti and Prof. Christopher Rundle for their invaluable help with the project this study was part of.

We would also like to thank Prof. Silvia Bernardini for her constructive comments on a draft of this manuscript. Our heartfelt thanks also go to all the Italian and Iranian colleagues who helped with the distribution of our survey as well as the survey participants. These items describe different aspects of identity. Please read each item carefully and consider how it applies to you.

The full scale is:. Not important to my sense of who I am 1 2 3 4 5 Extremely important to my sense of who I am. Journal of International Studies Bourdieu, Pierre Outline of a theory of practice , trans. Nice, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Bourdieu, Pierre In other words: Essays towards a reflexive sociology , trans. Measurement Instrument Database for the Social Science, www. Grenfell, Michael ed Pierre Bourdieu: Empowerment from Theory to Practice , Manchester, St. Latour, Bruno Reassembling the social: Bartrina eds , Oxon, Routledge: Heine, Toshio Yamagishi, and Tatsuya Kameda eds.

Snel Trampus, Rita D. After completing his MA in Translation Studies at Shahid Beheshti University, he started his translator training career in and has ever since taught undergraduate translation courses mainly at Arak University, where he got his BA in English Translation in He attended the University of Bologna once as a PhD student in , and another time as a doctoral visiting student in Starting from the definitions of culture, law, technology as well as legal and technical culture respectively, the aim of this paper is to point out the different degrees of cultural specificity in law and technology and in legal and technical language and texts.

The paper will also show to what extend the differences within the various dimensions of cultural specificity lead to differences in methods and procedures of translation. Ausgehend von den Definitionen von Kultur, Recht und Technik einerseits sowie von Rechts- und Technikkultur andererseits wird in diesem Beitrag der unterschiedliche Grad von Kulturspezifik in Recht und Technik und in ihren sprachlich-textuellen Manifestationen herausgearbeitet. Kulturspezifik, Rechtssprache, technische Sprache, cultural specificity, legal language, technical language.

Ziel des Beitrags ist es zum einen, den unterschiedlichen Grad der Kulturspezifik in Recht und Technik und ihren sprachlich-textuellen Manifestationen herauszuarbeiten. Rechtliche Regeln werden, wie von Marschelke Nutzung einerseits bestimmte Voraussetzungen mitbringen muss, dessen Erfordernissen aber andererseits auch bei der Gestaltung der Technik Rechnung zu tragen ist. Recht und die damit verbundene Kultur sind m. Bei qualitativer Betrachtung stellt sich dann heraus, dass Technikkultur im Korpus nur mit den Termini Stiftung und Verein verbunden ist.

Welche kulturspezifischen Unterschiede bestehen zwischen Recht und Technik auf der sprachlichen und der textuellen Ebene? Welche Unterschiede zwischen Recht und Technik wirken sich in besonderer Weise auf die kulturspezifischen Unterschiede aus? Rechtssprache ist in erster Linie eine Institutionensprache Busse Diese erfordert eine doppelte rechtlich-sprachliche Abstraktion.

Civil Law - vs. Nur in mehrsprachigen nationalen Rechtsordnungen Beisp.: Schweizer Recht und in supranationalen Rechtsordnungen Beisp.: In der Technik dagegen sind es tendenziell ein und dieselben Begriffe, die durch unterschiedliche Benennungen zum Ausdruck gebracht werden. Bei der Entwicklung der technischen Terminologien gibt es jedoch, wie von Arntz Dennoch gibt es auch in der Technik Bereiche, in denen die Terminologie nicht systematisch genormt ist, so die Kfz-Technik Arntz Definitionen sind dabei nicht nur ein Recht-, sondern auch ein Technik-Thema, was anhand der nationalen und internationalen Normung sichtbar wird z.

Auch gibt es zahlreiche Terminologieportale mit genormter Technik-Terminologie z. Im Recht ist es, v. So gibt es beispielsweise von den das Ermittlungs- und das Zwischenverfahren des italienischen Strafprozesses kennzeichnenden neun Textsorten nur drei, die eine Entsprechung in den vergleichbaren Abschnitten des deutschen Strafprozesses haben:. Gliederungskonventionen in deutschen und italienischen Gesetzestexten.

Schweizer Recht oder supranationalen Rechtsordnung Beisp.: Eine wichtige Rolle spielen in diesem Zusammenhang Definitionen vgl. Diese sind allerdings einerseits nicht zu jedem Terminus oder Begriff vorhanden. Dies ist, wie von Reinart Diese kann in der Technik auch die Inhaltsbestandteile bzw.

Apply the parking brake firmly. Shift the automatic transaxle to Park or manual transaxle to Neutral. Da Ausgangs- und Zielkultur hier allerdings zusammenfallen, kann allenfalls von einer Anpassung an Sprachtraditionen die Rede sein. Die sich hier manifestierenden Besonderheiten der Rechtssprache als Fachsprache vgl. Der Beitrag basiert auf einem Vortrag, den ich dort am Ein internationales Handbuch zur Fachsprachenforschung und Terminologiewissenschaft , 2. Hoffmann, Lothar Kommunikationsmittel Fachsprache.

Le-Hong, Kai und Peter A. Traduction de textes juridiques: Patti, Salvatore a cura di Codice Civile Italiano. Perspectives for the New Millenium. Akten des Symposiums Mannheim, 3. Tilch, Horst und Frank Arloth Hrsg. Bilder und audiovisuelle Materialien in der Technik generell eine wichtige Rolle spielen Arntz Her other research areas include legal language, notably notarial language, didactics of specialised translation, terminography and lexicography. Eva Wiesmann also works als a freelance legal translator and lexicographer. Political opinion articles as an ideologically-loaded type of political discourse are largely produced to serve the society to which they belong.

When translated, they could be manipulated to meet the socio-political needs of the target society. Translation Studies scholars have adopted a variety of critical approaches and methodologies to account for such manipulations, inspired by the principles of Critical Discourse Analysis CDA and under the critical translation movement. To achieve this objective, a collection of 31 English opinion articles, along with their corresponding Persian translations, are analyzed. At the textual level, however, some modifications are suggested.

Critical Discourse Analysis, CDA, ideological square, manipulation, news translation, political discourse, opinion articles. Regardless of their methodology, all the scholars have unanimously agreed that the political context in which the target text TT is produced leads the trans-editor s [1] to manipulate the TT. Manipulation is a term originally concerned with literary translation and was first used by the scholars of the Manipulation School e. Some scholars consider it as translation acts by means of which linguistic and cultural barriers are transcended and communication is facilitated e.

Therefore, manipulation has also been considered a filter through which a specific representation of ST is promoted e. The current study considers manipulation from the latter perspective. The question is, which analytical framework can serve to investigate manipulation in translation from this perspective?

First, the appropriateness of the framework will be argued.

Then, we will show how the framework links with Translation Studies and serves as a model for investigating manipulation in political discourse translation through the analysis of 31 Persian translations of English opinion articles. Since the ideological turn in Translation Studies, ideological and political factors have drawn the attention of translation scholars to the study of translation context. That is, CDA and TS share the idea that textual features should not be interpreted without considering the ideological context of text production and reception.

Ietcu-Fairclough points out that translators work under certain socio-political conventions and restrictions which serve the wider values and ideologies of power holders in society.

Thus, the strategies employed by translators are aimed at the production of a text in line with set values. This is even more significant when it comes to political discourse translation, in general, and opinion articles, in particular. Political opinion articles, as opposed to hard news articles, are believed to be significantly loaded with ideologies Bell ; van Dijk As van Dijk That is, they are consistent with the beliefs and values of the dominant socio-political frameworks of the institutions themselves and the wider society to which they belong Hodge and Kress, Likewise, Vuorinen and Darwish maintain that translation in news agencies is influenced by institutional policies and ideologies to justify and control actions and their outcomes.

Therefore, translators are not the only people who decide on the translation; their work is edited by others such as senior translators, editors and the chief editor Hursti ; Bielsa Over the past few years, translation scholars have attempted to apply CDA in their studies to look at the influence of such conditions on news translation e. It should be noted that these studies are flawed for two reasons.

Second, others are case studies which analyse a single article e. Therefore, there is a need for a study with a broader set of data which goes beyond mere lexical analysis. The portrayal of the conflicts between Iran and the Western world have also been among the points of interest in investigating the influence of ideology on the news language. They argue that the translation strategies used are realized through the purposeful application of linguistic expressions both at lexical and grammatical level or non-linguistic elements such as images, photos, and graphic drawings.

Sanatifar and Jalalian Daghigh , investigate, from a socionarrative perspective, how the Iranian media, through translation, directed the public perception of the social and political realities about its nuclear program through reframing as it was already framed in the Western media. Unlike Khanjan et al. Other studies have compared Western news texts in English with Iranian-Persian texts covering the same topic.

The results of their study show that the British media delegitimized the Iranian nuclear program, whereas the Iranian media portrayed it positively. Their study highlights a few points. First, they have gone beyond mere analysis of lexical choices by taking transitivity procedures, namely nominalization, and passivization, into account. Second, by looking at the domestic media, which support government policies, and by comparing it with the Western media, they shed light on socio-political factors, which based on CDA, explain different uses of language by the media.

Nevertheless, without denying the merit of these studies, it is noticeable that by merely looking at parallel texts produced in two different contexts, it is not possible to uncover manipulations carried out by news trans-editors. At the macro level is the society which is concerned with power relationships at the level of local interlocutors and global societal structures. In his approach, social power is understood as a means of controlling the mind and action of groups and people. At the micro level is discourse, which refers to various discourse structures language encapsulating ideologies.

Van Dijk points out that the meaning of the text is embedded in the discourse by language producers, and as such, it exists and is represented in their minds. He characterizes it as a polarization of Us and Them through which the positive and negative features of in-group Us and out-group Them are de emphasized by applying 24 discourse structures.

The Secret of Personal Narrative Ideas That No One Is Talking About

That is, the polarization between Us and Them is manifested via all linguistic dimensions of a text, which are interpreted as one of the following overall strategies:. Besides the 24 discourse structures identified by van Dijk , ideology may be represented in the text via syntactic features of language as well. Since van Dijk has not included these features in his framework, the linguistic toolkits which are set forth by Hodge and Kress , and Fowler and Fairclough , i.

In the following, a background of Iranian media policies and what forms the ideological Us and Them in the country is provided. In , with the Islamic revolution in Iran, a referendum was held and the Islamic Republic of Iran as the socio-political system of the country was officially recognized. Accordingly, in the same year, a new constitution was ratified to adjust the rules and norms to the newly-established system. In addition, having the support of the European powers, specifically the UK, the USA has attempted to stop the country from being a nuclear power in the region Hastedt The foreign policy of Iran is also reflected in its constitution.

Translators’ Identities within Approaches to Translation Sociology:

On the one hand, Article 56 of Chapter 8 of the Iranian constitution categorizes a number of countries, mainly the U. A and Israel, as hostile governments. These points have also been stressed in Iranian media law. Chapter 4 of the law bans several cases, among which are those that noticeably. Chapter 2 of the law states the missions of the media. Among the missions described in this chapter are those that. The data collection began by looking at the target text published on the Iranian news website Diplomacy-e-Irani Iranian Diplomacy.

A total of 31 Persian news opinion articles, which were all translated from English into Persian, were obtained from the archive of the news website within a period of 3 months, dated from April 1, , to June 30, In fact, more and more ideologically-loaded articles were then being published. Mic, Executive Magazine, and The Atlantic.

After identifying the ideological significance of the source texts see Figure 2 , through comparing the source ST and target text TT , the ideological mismatches are described, categorized and evaluated. Analysis of the source text per se suggests that the ST representations can be categorized into four major patterns as follows:. In the following section, the results obtained from comparing the ST and the TT are presented. The given examples reflect the manipulation patterns in Persian translation of the opinion articles which are based on various procedures.

Since the inclusion of all procedures falls beyond the scope of the study, the complete list of the procedures is separately provided in Appendix A Jalalian The best means of disarming Iran is to insist on a simple and basic redline […] Takeyh, Comparison of the ST and the TT shows some mismatches, which could be explained in terms of ideological manipulations.

In fact, by categorizing a particular group who favor the Islamic Republic the political regime , the ST author refers to a minority who supports the nuclear program, but this is generalized to Iranians, as a case of creating populism in the TT. This is a change of perspective which not only filters a negative depiction of Iran, but also, may represent the West negatively; thus, a target reader may interpret this as stopping a program which could be the right of a nation. Therefore, in all the cases discussed above, there is an attempt by the trans-editor s to block the negative representations of the in-group US in the TT.

The procedures of blocking are listed and explained in Appendix A. It would have to agree to completely open all Iranian nuclear facilities to regular inspections by the IAEA which has thus far refused to do so Purzycki, First Iran would give permission to the inspectors to enter all its nuclear sites. Some information may remain implicit, as it may be shared knowledge with the recipients and inferred from context. However, there are other reasons for implicitation. For example, for cultural purposes such as politeness, an unacceptable expression might become implicit. In addition, political motivations may lead an author to leave an expression implicit van Dijk, While negative features of an in-group may remain implicit or mitigated through euphemism, the negative features of an out-group may be explicated van Dijk, However, this is omitted in the TT.

As such, implicitation is used to demote the negative representation of the in-group in the TT. At the last round of talks, in February in Kazakhstan, the United States and five otherworld powers offered Tehran modest concessions, including softening limits on trade using gold and other precious metals, and easing some restrictions on petrochemicalexports, if the Iranians agreed to halt production of medium-enriched uranium. The Iranians did not accept the offer Ritcher Disclaimer is a combination of positive self-representation and negative other-representation and saves face by emphasizing the positive features of an in-group and representing an out-group negatively by focusing on their negative features.

In the above example, both positive representations of the out-group and negative representation of the in-group are expressed via disclaimer. In fact, the ST depicts the out-group positively by stating that a good offer from the United States is turned down by the in-group. However, it is blocked from entering the TT by complete omission. In fact, the negative representation of the in-group, as well as the positive representation of the out-group are both manipulated in the TT.

Groups and individuals might be addressed by neutral terms. Thus, a polarized term used to refer to an in-group positively and an out-group negatively is a marker of the ideology of a group towards its in-groups and out-groups van Dijk, In the above example, the author quotes what Ashton, the leader of the Western powers in negotiations, states on the proposal which has been given by the West.

As can be seen in the ST, this part of the text is a positive representation of the West and their proposal. This reveals that the trans-editors consider themselves to be members of the target society. As such, the positive representation of the Westerners is demoted by omitting some information. Based on my personal experience, Rowhani is a polite and open character Fischer Based on my personal experience, Rowhani is a polite man with open character.

In discourse, an actor can be described as a manifestation of a group ideology towards what they consider as in-group and out-group. Comparison of the ST and the TT shows no ideological manipulation. As a result, the positive representation of the in-group is preserved in the TT. Unlike outgoing president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, he surrounds himself with very skilful and experienced diplomats Fischer His ongoing balanced policies in past posts indicate that he is a sophisticated person.

These translations are both in line with the meaning of the ST words. However, the addition of some positive representation in the TT, which does not exist in the ST, intensifies the already positive representation of Rowhani in the ST. Like the previous examples, this example represents the way DPR is manipulated. By applying certain procedures, the ST positive representation of the in-group is promoted in the TT. The procedures of promotion are explained in Appendix A.

The discourse of counterfactuals warns about something that would happen as the result of the problem created by another group. Comparison of the ST and the TT suggests that the negative representation of the out-group is transferred from the ST to the TT without any manipulation. Therefore, the negative representation of the out-group is preserved in the TT. In the above example, the author blames Obama for sending arms to Syria for the problem it may cause in the path toward a probable deal between Iran and the USA.

However, it is worth mentioning the few ideological manipulations. That is, the reader may imagine that the USA has sent heavy arms rather than small arms. As such, the negative representation of Obama and his policies are promoted in the TT. As stated earlier, the ST analysis suggests four patterns of representation. In total, 82 percent of the ST representations are in conflict with the cases which are stipulated in the Iranian media law. As a result, it is far from expectation that the translators simply transfer the undesired representations to the TT intact.

1.1 Research Questions and Hypotheses

Table 2 summarizes the ST representations as manipulated in the TT. As the table displays, the undesired representations have been treated differently from the desired representations. The four identified strategies of manipulation and their percentages in translations. The first category is the undesired negative representation of the in-group.

The second category is an undesirable positive representation of the out-group. The third category is a desirable negative representation of the out-group. The last category is a desirable positive representation of the in-group.

As the table reveals, while preserving does not exist in the first two groups, it is dominantly used in the last two groups DNR and DPR. This suggests that the trans-editors have preserved the positive representations of the in-groups and negative representations of the out-groups. One may argue that preserving may not be a manipulative pattern. However, by comparing its use among the four categories of the ST representations, it can be concluded that preserving has been applied deliberately to highlight the desired representations.

As stated earlier, translation is an act of recontextualization. When a text is recontextualized, it is influenced by the contextual factors of the target society. Even though some transformations are unavoidable in the process of translation due to linguistic and cultural factors, the ones which are evident in this study cannot be interpreted as a result of constraints imposed by such related aspects.

In fact, the data analysis suggests that the political discourse translators working at Iranian Diplomacy seem to have been restricted, among many, by the ideological factors governing the institution they work for. The institution per se is part of the society in which certain values are shared. The state ideology of the Iranian government is a good example of such conditions. The Islamic revolution has resulted in forming a polarized categorization which has been reflected in both the constitution and the media law.

This takes place through text producers who shape the discourse to meet the expectations of the institution they work for. In fact, text producers, being aware of the commission they have and guided by the factors underlying ideological square, produce a text which reflects the ideology of the powerholders through their discursive practices. Analysis of the data shows that the ST consists of representations which conflict with the stance of the Iranian government toward the in-group Us and the out group Them.

Through the manipulative procedures, the undesired and desired representations are formed into representations which recreate a new discourse for the target text audience. The purpose of this appears to ensure that the target text is in accordance with the values and ideology of the target society. The proposed CDA-based model for the analysis of manipulation in political discourse translation.

The model which is developed through modifications to the originally monolingual CDA of van Dijk tends to focus on the ideological square in the context of the target society. The ideology of the target society power holders, which has roots in their stance toward the conflicts with foreign countries, is reflected in the TT discourse through manipulation strategies. It appears that the square can accommodate manipulation in the bilingual context of political discourse translation.

However, applying this to translation needs some modification. As such, it is concluded that the trans-editors tend to manipulate the ST representations based on Figure 3 illustration. Illustration of the four identified strategies to investigate manipulation in political discourse translation. As the figure reveals, trans-editors tend to positively represent their own group Us and negatively represent the other group Them.

The strategies, except for preserving, are implemented through applying some manipulative procedures which are explained in Appendix A. The linguistic toolkits provided by van Dijk and the ones provided and shared among other CDA models, including Fairclough, Hodge and Kress, and Fowler, seem to be not enough in explaining all the manipulation procedures, most probably due to their monolingual nature of analysis. Therefore, by taking a descriptive-explanatory approach, the study has attempted to investigate the ones which are not explained by CDA see Appendix A. The proposed model conceptualizes the important topic of manipulation in mediation of ideology as performed by political discourse translators.

By being aware of the proposed model, translation critiques would be better able to make informed criticism of manipulation in translation. It would also help translation teachers and material developers to better explain and illustrate manipulations to their translator trainees, specifically in courses which deal with journalistic and political text translation. In addition, it facilitates the path of future researchers as it provides them with an analytical framework to uncover the manipulated discourses in translation.

The current study investigated manipulation in translation by focusing on 31 opinion articles translated form English to Persian. Further studies on other genres of political discourse in other societies with different language pairs could be enlightening in developing the proposed model. To represent an undesired representation of ST from a different perspective in TT so that the trace of the ST representation is removed.

To replace an undesired negative representation of ST with an item in TT which nullifies the representation. To nullify an undesired negative representation of ST with a vague expression in TT, by not providing the details of the ST representation in TT, which leads to nullifying the representation.

To minimize an undesired negative representation of ST by attributing the interests of a person or a specific group high ranking officials to many people. To replace an undesired negative representation of ST with a positively-loaded item in TT so as to censor the representation.

To partially remove an undesired representation of ST in TT so that the degree of representation is minimized. To lower the loading of an undesired representation of ST in TT by nominalizing, by which the details of subject and object are removed. To particularize an undesired negative representation of ST in TT as opposed to the generality of a ST representation so as to lower the load of negativity.

To omit the subject of an undesired negative representation of ST in TT as opposed to an active structure so as to remove the responsibility of the actor s. To intensify a desired negative representation of ST by either replacing it with a more negatively-loaded item or adding an extra negatively-loaded item. Fairclough, Norman Critical Discourse Analysis: Fowler, Roger Language in the News: Hastedt, Glenn American Foreign Policy: Hermans, Theo The Manipulation of Literature: Hodge, Robert and Gunther Kress.

Studies in Intercultural Communication 13, no. Mearsheimer, John and Stephen M. International Journal on Translation Studies 24, no. Studia Translatologica, Ser B, no. He has a number of publications and has presented in several international conferences. The author has published numerous articles in specialized journals and has presented widely in international conferences.

His main research interests are: She is the author and co-author of a number of journal papers and has presented in several international conferences. Her main research areas are Translation, journalism, News discourse and editing. This study examines the effect of following a translation training programme at postgraduate level on the way trainee translators justify the strategies applied to solve translation problems, in particular, the positions they adopt while discussing their translation decisions. The Translation Studies programme at the University of Birmingham is used as a case study.

The Downside Risk of Personal Narrative Ideas

The trainee translators completed a translation task which involved commenting on translation problems and translation strategies according to a pre-prepared form while translating a text. This task, preceded by a questionnaire, was repeated at three stages throughout the academic year This paper reports on a part of the findings resulting from the data analysis. It suggests that trainee translators become more assertive in the justification of their solutions to translation problems as a consequence of following a translation training programme.

This study also indicates that the students seem to be less willing to engage with alternative viewpoints by the end of the programme. Rico argues that, at European universities,. In his view, this was due to the new development in translation training programmes after the Bologna process which started in and aimed at establishing a common system of learning and teaching in universities across Europe and which is based on student-centred pedagogical principles and student-teacher interaction Rico Since translator training at university level is still considered a recent phenomenon and insufficiently researched in Translation Studies Pym This article starts with providing a description of the general design of the study and the research methods employed.

This is followed by an overview of the procedures used to analyse the data. The findings of the study are then presented. Although this may raise concerns about a possible bias, being familiar with the programme can also be seen as an advantage when it comes to interpreting the results of the study. Even though it is difficult to generalize on the basis of one case study, hopefully this research offers data which will be of interest to the wider translation training community.

Universities in the UK offer different types of degrees in Translation Studies at different levels: Concerning masters-level programmes, universities either focus on translation alongside other types of studies comparative literature, interpreting, subtitling, TESOL, linguistics and intercultural communication , such as the MA in Translation and Linguistics at the University of Westminster, or offer programmes in specific language pairs MA in Chinese — English Translation at The University of Bristol or contexts MA in Translation in a European Context at Aston University.

Although these generalist programmes may differ in terms of the way the modules are organized throughout the academic year and their focus, they share many characteristics. Employing the MA in Translation Studies at the University of Birmingham as a case study can be particularly useful for translation training programmes sharing the same characteristics or aspects of this programme. For example, these programmes follow the UK higher education system; include national, European and overseas students; allow students to work with a variety of languages; and give the students the opportunity to work on research and translation projects to complete the programme.

Lecturers in such programmes are of different nationalities and have professional translation experience. These programmes also offer students core and optional modules which aim at developing a range of translation-oriented skills, such as linguistic, intercultural, instrumental and social skills.

A variety of research methods were employed in the present study. A questionnaire was initially used in order to collect background information about the trainee translators attending the Translation Studies programme at the University of Birmingham, to define the context of the study and the variables affecting translator training. This preliminary approach was then followed by a translation task. The students were required to perform a translation task which included translating a text and simultaneously commenting on the translation according to a pre-prepared form. The source text was an excerpt from a tourist information brochure.

The text was also short to encourage students to participate in the study as the task can be time consuming. Students were required to translate the text into another language as they speak different native languages. They were asked to assume that the target audience was similar to that of the source text. Students were informed that they were free to use dictionaries or reference material and discuss their translation with whoever they wish and no time frame was given. The trainees were asked to complete a form whilst translating. This provided them with a systematic way of recording all information related to their decision-making processes whilst completing the task.

The form included six sections which allowed the participants to record: Literature on translation problems indicates that there is no agreement on a clear definition of what a translation problem is see Toury Therefore, no specific definition of translation problems was given to the students in order to examine the way they perceive these problems. They were not provided with any specific classification of translation problems, information sources or strategies to avoid offering a list of predefined categories that would force them either to select a category, which may not reflect their actual response, or skip filling in sections of the form because they could not find an appropriate answer.

The information resources were defined as hard copy documents such as dictionaries , electronic sources or human sources for example, a fellow student Gile Thus, the definition of strategies was: The data for this case study was collected at three stages during the academic year in the Autumn, Spring and Summer terms and the analysis involved a comparison of data between the three periods.

During the three stages of the data collection process, the participants were provided with texts of a similar genre tourist texts and length to translate no more than words. The data produced by the study was analysed using the appraisal system developed by Martin and White , within the framework of Functional Grammar Halliday and Matthiessen , for exploring interpersonal meanings by explaining and describing the way language users evaluate arguments, adopt textual stances and negotiate positioning and relationships White It served to examine the language employed by the students in discussing their translation decisions in order to investigate the way they positioned themselves in their arguments.

According to Martin and White Since the focus in the present study is on the stance adopted by trainee translators while discussing their translation decisions, the data provided by the students was analysed and discussed according to the Engagement domain of the appraisal system.

Bare assertions obviously contrast with these heteroglossic options in not overtly referencing other voices or recognising alternative positions. As a consequence, the communicative context is construed as single voiced Martin and White Examining the system of engagement as used by the students will allow us to investigate the way they positioned their voices in respect to other voices in the communicative context construed while discussing their translation decisions.

According to the system of engagement, heteroglossic clauses can be divided into: In dialogic contractive, speakers or writers can either:. They indicate that their proposition is one of a wide range of possible positions by either:. The unit of analysis in functional terms is the clause complex: One of the problems with applying appraisal theory to the language used by the students is that many clauses included more than one token of evaluation which posed difficulty in classifying these clauses, as was the case in example Therefore, although in Functional Grammar the unit of analysis is the clause complex, it was more effective in the present study to consider both the clause complex and tokens of evaluation as units of analysis, and discuss the data accordingly.

Based on this, in example 1, we have two attitudinal clauses and four attitudinal tokens in the two clauses, each including instances of both denial and counter-expectancy. Because this was a small-scale study, data provided in the questionnaire was analysed manually. Raw frequencies and percentages were used to quantify the data. Percentage difference across the three stages was calculated using an online calculator [1] in order to examine whether there was a difference in the percentages of the raw frequencies in the data collected.

In the analysis, we focused on the most prominent patterns which reflected a change in the data collected throughout the academic year. A test of statistical significance was also performed in order to test whether there was a significant difference in the data provided by the students across the three stages. It has to be acknowledged that this methodology, coupled with the small sample size and the fact that a number of participants opted to leave the study before it was concluded, creates the possibility of several types of bias: In order for the conclusions made in this study to validated, the observations would need to be repeated with a new group and a clear hypothesis established before the start of data collection.

However, using this test helped us to determine how high or low the probability that the decrease or increase in the data throughout the three stages was due to chance. The chi-square test compares the values of the data proportionally where probability values P of 0. Thus, the null hypothesis H 0 in the present study is that any difference between the data presented by the students at each stage is due to chance, and therefore not significant. If the calculated value of the chi-square is less than or equal to the probability value of 0.

There was a drop-off of The data of the students who dropped out of the study was removed and therefore only the data of the twelve students four males and eight females who took part in all three stages of the study was included. It seems that the participants had many common characteristics: On the other hand, these participants came from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds.

The respondents who took part in all the three stages of the study were given codes according to their gender M for male and F for female , in addition to a numeric value added to each of these codes. The two letter code system of languages ISO was also used to indicate the language of the target text.

Most of the participants translated the text from English into their first language Chinese: DE as English was their second language. Only three of the students were native English speakers and therefore translated the text into their second language French: The decision to use English as the source language in this study may have affected the translators' levels of confidence, as students translating into their native language might present different levels of self-assertion than students translating into their second language.

However, this was alleviated by choosing a text with a certain level of syntactical difficulty that is meant to pose the same level of difficulty for both native English speakers and speakers of English as a second language, as previously mentioned. In addition, the interest in this study was in the way the translators perceived translation problems and justified their decisions rather than in how they approached these specific texts.

Clauses used by the students in the forms were categorised as monoglossic when they did not include any tokens of engagement, and heteroglossic when they did. Thus they were classified according to whether the students negotiated their decisions by making a reference to alternative voices and viewpoints or presented their justifications objectively, as is clear in example In this example, student F8FR justified including an explanation of her translation of the title of the text into French, using monoglossic and heteroglossic clauses.

In some cases, an elliptical subject and finite were assumed. Since these cases are less clear cut than those where the subject and finite are explicit, and they involve an extra layer of interpretation on the part of the researcher, these clauses were considered separately from the explicit ones, so as to offer a more transparent view of the analysis. Table 1 gives an overview of results. By looking at Table 1, we can notice that the students used more monoglossic clauses than heteroglossic clauses while discussing translation problems, which is expected.

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