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Foreign ideas are fine. Foreign people who hate you, or who come to your country voluntariily and then complain about how oppressed they are, then demand that you let their cousin come, too? Andrea estuvo el mes pasado. Israel should take back the Sinai and kick the bearded men of both sexes from the mosque on the temple mount then level it. Let the religion of pieces pound sand, Barry will be on vacation anyway. I don't know what muslin is, but we did the same thing with water washable paints not water color paints and printer paper. Sprinklers or spray bottles are good sources of water too!
This really does make beautiful designs. Do you have any recommendations? Also going to Tuscany for the first time. Your article and photos makes me want to squeeze in Puglia. It just sounds like a great place to exhale. When I first started, I was shy about commenting. Or at least it makes it more enjoyable…Thanks for stopping by!
What I wouldnt give to have a debate with you about this. You just say so many things that come from nowhere that Im pretty positive Id have a fair shot. Your blog is terrific visually, I mean people wont be bored. But others who can see past the videos and the layout wont be so impressed together with your generic understanding of this topic. July 26, — 1: Makes me cry, happy tears of course. If people only knew what us and our family have been through to get tho this point.
Thank you so very much. You are truely a beautiful person inside and out and of course VERY talented! Usually I do not read article on blogs, however I wish to say that this write-up very compelled me to take a look at and do so! Your writing taste has been amazed me.
Thanks, quite nice article. Paypal will clean you out with their BS. The web page loading rate is extraordinary. It form of feels you are doing just about any unique key. Also, The articles are masterpiece. First of all, nostalgia the best way to judge something because I try to watch reruns of Mighty and it sucks dick. I mean I envy your nostalgia but as an adult I try to be objective when watching things and those early seasons are unwatchable to me. Tutto cif2 e8 bellissimo No davrveo e8 quasi commovente.
La scrittura, la voglia di scrivere, i personaggi seduti sul cuscino. E noi saremo ovviamente qui impazienti di leggere il della nostra autrice preferita. What's the point in responding? You are of your father the devil as you totally disregard all the stories I've shared regarding Islamic honor killings.
Only in Islam are these events occurring. Hamburger University is not really a university, and there is no Hamburger Elementary. Thank you for letting me hover around you taking a zillion pictures. And teaching me a new word today — encomium! Gonna use that in a sentence tomorrow! And from my experiences, forbidden fruit is usually delicious! You are so groovy. Thanks for this, Susan. If anyone one who deserves to be in top 5 position than its katz, ranbir cant be put ahead of akki or hirthik as of now, and why cant ajay be ahead of ranbir? De buitenvrouw staat bij mij half gelezen in de kast… meestal is het oordeel dan "niet boeiend genoeg" geweest..
Dat e-book lezen is inderdaad een succes aan het worden. Deze vakantie ook veel lovende woorden erover gehoord: Och, het meeslepen van een boekenkist heeft toch ook nog wel enige charme. Han les vilaines excuses! This is really interesting, You are an overly professional blogger. I love the Al Gore suggestion! Although he might not have time for it… he has his own deep agenda. Thank goodness We merely found this most regarding Search engines. You possess made my own very finest day time!
Thx for every second second! Thank you for making my Wednesday. I really, really love this. YomeCorn ethanol is a joke. Increasing the cut of alcohol in fuel actually drops the gas mileage of the vehicle using it since alcohol has a lower unit energy density. Since most of the alcohol comes from corn it is also an oil derivative since substantial amounts of oil based fertilizers must be used to grow the corn that is used to produce ethanol. Its a Rube Goldberg fuel production supply chain. I feel this is one of the so much significant info for me.
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Herregud vad jag har missat mycket i helgen! Daniel — du ar ju super!! Vilken enorm lopare du ar! Vart far du alla krafter ifran?! Will be using them in the future. Do you have any? Kindly let me recognise in order that I may subscribe. DFTP — I look forward to seeing what you create! Grudos to you too! The national average is Wikipedia seems to agree. Do you have better sources? Heath was still in parliament, for instance, in the first term of the Blair government, retiring only in Churchill also stayed an MP in very old age.
Blair, I think, is the exception. COM offers you a full suite of domain name products, which includes domain names privacy registration, area title domain transfers, d domain names renewal, web domains expiration safety and web domains privacy products for web domains. Your blog is IS not was Awesome! Thank you so much for all of this. Stay strong, We shall overcome! My hometown is Woodland, CA and what makes this town is special is…it is where I raised my sons. There are alot of memories there…their school, church and of course the Little League fields where there are such grand memories.
Warm greetings to you! If there is any illogical point, please, ask at your convenience. I would check to see if your computer even sees the controller. If not, download the driver and check. Also, pressing the analog button seems to fix most problems. Was this answer helpful? Hang in there, this too shall pass! A fukkin loooong Holiday!!!!!! Luvsya sexy xxxxxxxxxxxxxx Tony MrT. L'Oreal Extra Collagen would be mine! The medium one is the perfect match. You are making it hard to resist that die!!
Best wishes for a happy and healthy New Year filled with loads of creativity!!: Raquel—definitely Col Fitzwillian fits into one of her flirtations. I was actually a little surprised at her on this re-read, going from Wickham to Fitzwilliam so quickly! Some movies, like the one, totally play down Col. I like your description of your Mr Darcy!
What I dont understand is: Why do people in the audience sheers after someone folds to a bet? When I have The Nuts and someone folds to my raise…. I wouldnt be happy! OK people who dont understand poker: Please Tram Pararam, keep your word. Try to maybe update once every days. That would be awesome. Ed,Thanks for your transparent and sharing your story. May all men who are trapped find their freedom in Christ with the help of Godly brothers like you.
I saw these on Pinterest this morning, and had to come and take a look! Lori Patterson — From a fellow photog; I cried when Jesse and Amanda invited me over to share the photos. What an amazing job at capturing the entire day and also the love that I am honored to witness every day. Thank you both so very much and I look forward to seeing all of your creative work of the two people I consider the epitome of love in true form.
Have a Sign Company in Dallas. Been lurking around watching you guys. Hope to fit in. Trying to learn all I can. Not trying to get last word in but my favorite moment;Cruz: Dan if you were Lt Governor, we would have a sanctuary city bill. Over and over Cruz. It makes no sense. Here are some of the Zings that the ZingBot said: The Best one was for Danielle: May I suggest encouraging her to have an invisible playmate. This will help you and keep her company for years to come. Just read that Slick Willy has taken on the official role of being the head campaigner for the Big 0.
That is not an o as open but it is a zero. One other thing I would really like to say is newer computer system operating systems often allow additional memory to get used, but they additionally demand more storage simply to operate. So far, I have changed very little from the truth in my writing, but I do wonder if my stories would improve if I fabricated a little bit of them.
As long as it is entertaining and connects with people, does it really matter? If people hate the game ok, i can live with it, but stop saying that your opinion is the only true one and all others are just dumb fanboys. As theoretical diatribes go yours was quite restrained.
Giving two of the top spots to one domain is more than enough. The expandable link works well — let people have the option to see more results from one site if they want, but don't force it on them. Is anyone else having this problem or is it a problem on my end? MedInformaticsMD, you have hit the nail squarely on the head.
Unfortunately, arrogance and greed probably have not yet run their course. I always called those things "Butt Trumpets". Ones had a Coffey can chromed and end used it as a tail pipe end to insult a friends car. I love your insights, but you really need to spend some more time proofreading your writing — to the extent of rewriting some hopelessly-wrought sentences.
FnFCredo che la giurisdizione italiana non si applichi alla Svizzera Italiana: Che il tunnel esiste? Che la lingua italiana va reinterpretata? Ad ogni buon conto i blog rettificheranno, tanto la gente ha capito con chi ha a che fare. PSMi ricorda una vignetta di Altan: Boah,wie genial sind die denn!!!!!!!!
Super Erdbeerig,hab selten sowas tolles gesehen. Ich freue mich sehr,das du bei der Challenge mitmachst! Die Box oder das papierset???????? Espero deixar o meu voya 1. Say, you got a nice blog article. Im obliged for the article. Thanks for the article post. I assume that Assange means that if something happened to him there are mechanisms in place to automatically release some documents. So if he died suddenly, he would not only be a martyr to the left but he would make the US look even more evil and release more documents.
The only thing the disturbed me about Bat-Vision was that it sounded like a video game. Two-Face was always great. I was a little disturbed by the real life two face. I must be spoiled by the cartoon Two-Face. I feel in love with the reindeer. Probably because Christmas is my favourite time of the year.
I found it way more fun than Origins. O the combat was just filler in between the interesting parts, which is all the talking!
You should continue ones composing. This design is incredible! You most certainly know how to keep a reader amused. Between your wit and your videos, I was almost moved to start my own blog well, almost…HaHa! I really loved what you had to say, and more than that, how you presented it.
You yourself is clearly very proud of the influence the Germans have had on you. Craziness combined with scholarship driving the person into something else is quite Jewish. Yes, I do not argue with that. Long live the Jews too! Hey Jerry, is it just me or does anyone else think the leak is coming from a certain AD who should be sent packing back to the mid-major school he came from?
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Look, we're living in a time when people who are supposed to be sane consciously reject historical facts, whether the Shoah or the existence of the Jewish temple in Jerusalem [in Bayt al-Maqdis, an Arab name for the city derived the Hebrew name for the Temple, Beyt haMiqdash]. Most of these people are resistant to changing their minds, even after the truth has been reasonably proven to them.
I wanted to follow along and allow you to know how great I loved discovering your website today. Should a position regarding guest author become available at your end, remember to let me know. Hi Rose,I have just been watching a British documentary on the Boer War in which Gideon Scheepers is mentioned and also a photograph of his tombstone is shown.
Is it true that his grave has never been found. Thank you a lot for providing individuals with remarkably spectacular chance to read in detail from this website. It is always very pleasant and jam-packed with amusement for me and my office mates to search your site the equivalent of 3 times every week to read the fresh items you will have. And definitely, I am just always fulfilled with all the breathtaking tips served by you.
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Her article and adsense tracker cracked me up…! Guess we will all just have to wait and see! I have realized some new points from your web page about computers. They supply you with convenient ways to organize households, pay bills, shop, study, pay attention to music and also watch television shows. An innovative strategy to complete most of these tasks is to use a laptop computer. These personal computers are portable ones, small, potent and transportable.
The only thing I don't like about this change is the quality drop-down. It is too close to the volume slider and will usually pop up when hovered over while trying to access the volume slider. If you could put a lock on the quality drop-down, that would be most appreciated. You should keep it up forever! July 25, — 9: In todays news reporting clever journalists function their very own slant into a story. Bloggers use it promote their works and a lot of just use it for enjoyable or to stay in touch with pals far away.
I learn something totally new and challenging on blogs I stumbleupon everyday. Seek emergency medical help if you have: Presume-se, portanto, que a 2. I am a big fan of this. This would be a special gift to one day give your child on the day of high school graduation or college graduation. They will have to go it alone—I had to and I got out unscathed.
Father, I lift up these two boys, and all those involved in this skateboard accident. Heal them both physically and spiritually. Use this terrible thing for your glory. In His Name, Amen. Gott ist immer gerecht! Wir wenden Gott in Jesus Christus zu. Welch Erbarmen ist bei ihm zu finden. Wahrlich Gott ist Geist und die Liebe. Guetiger, gnaediger Herr, wunderbar sind deine Werke! First, I want to say that you guys are pretty freaking amazing and thank you for answering my question about refinishing the floors. SInce then, I have ran into many additional dilemmas.
One being the bathroom. My home is fully equipped with the original, very neglected clawfoot tub and I am currently trying to figure out the best way to clean it. It also looks like it needs a few faucet and valves. Did you take that project up yourselves? You should open a scone-only bakery — you know like those MMMmmmmmuffins stores we used to have across Canada. Just think of all the flavours and toppings you could sell.
That would be perfect! Hi Karen,I wondering if you have ever posted about someone applying for a job at the institution that they are currently working in? My spouse and I are both academics, and he is now a tenured associate professor while I have worked a variety of jobs at the same institution no spousal hiring policy. More positions in my area are coming up, however, it seems very awkward to go through all the interview paces when I know all the players. Any words of advice? July 25, — 8: Schumer only wants to see everyone subjugated to the government.
He is definitely, far and away, the lesser of two evils. Photos de bizutages authentiques? I actually own a debt settlement credit company called AG Debt consultation We do what Shannon above is referring too and we are quite successful at it. If you would like some free advice or for me to look a little more into your situation go ahead and give me an email. My email is I am Aaron. And silent films were nothing like Star Wars. July 25, — 7: Thank you all for your kind words and prayers throughout this time! We are so thankful for all of you!
Shannon, I am so touched you would offer to come and help us out! I will be in touch with you!: October 29, Awesome atmosphere Everything about the Wynn was incredible. They have several great night clubs and the music the bass goes until about 4: We were on the 24th floor with a sound machine going and it was hard to sleep.
Other than that,the Wynn is a trip into luxury and pampering. July 25, — 6: Actually I think that I have it narrowed down to a bug in the offline blogging software that I use. I think that the author has never actually tested his code with a slow connection. The iPod is a much better choice in that case. Hello there all people. I was just browsing the online world for a great time and arrived upon your site.
Thank you tons for sharing your practical experience! It is good to find out that most people nevertheless put in an effort into managing their sites. I am going to you should definitely check back again. We need to make certain that trip in the to start with on-line sale Ugg Boots Retailing, towards concluding shipping and delivery of your personal warm boots may be as smooth out as it can. I like your post. Just one little remark: Spaghetti ice cream is this special cup that looks like a dish of spaghetti with tomatoe sauce. July 25, — 5: Coup bas, coup bas.. So much for thier oat to defend the Constitution.
That makes me sick. July 25, — 4: Hola Jorge soy manuel sabes por fabor mandame tu correo a esta direccion ya que en hotmail tengo unos problemas y ya tengo las fotos desde ya muchas gracias. Those spinach squares look wonderful…………. How delightful they look! What fun, you always bring such creative culinary goodies to our table! April 30, — 9: I am looking forward to reading more of your articles. I had no idea how Wikipedia worked. I think they deserve it.
I think I did something wrong for facebook author page. It seems an unnoticed adjunct. She is also the unknown model by Horst. One other model in the Penn piece with Wilhelmina, Marisa etc.. July 25, — 3: Would you offer guest writers to write content for you? AV-Block dritten Grades ohne Kammerersatzrythmus? Tippe mal eher auf letzteres, oder? Quem sabe para Cuba? Superb weblog internet site right here! Also your web site a good deal upwards extremely quickly!
What number have you been using? Two finishes in a week ohhh not sure we can have that shows the rest of us up!! Sadly, a lot of white people talk exactly like that. This is the extent and level of thoughts. Muchas cosas que decir: YO sigo leyendo tu blog, aunque no comente. Que mas podemos esperar de un director con esos antecedentes.
July 25, — 2: When on earth I glance at your blog in Search, it looks sunny however, qualification opening in I. I simply sought to give you a quick heads up! Aside starting that, fantastic site! March 2, Hello Dan. It is nice to meet you. Can anyone help Dan? Hugs and Love, M. August 24, Is fullMovies. My answer is yes.
It is just a single time payment. Initially i took one year subscription but now took a lifetime subscription. Their support is really exceptional. Their movie sizes are also very small mb to 1GB and quality is excellent. After the tedious business meetings the only source of enjoyment for me is fullmovies.
She's getting like votes per second. I just want to get her banned from Youtube, what a joke. Good thing the SC2 community is massive eh? Its either Punch newspaper has been bought over by the opposition politicians or they have decided to be very bias in their reporting. Does one offer guest writers to write content to suit your needs? I've been using the personalized homepage ever since it's early launch, and I like the improvements made to it since then… but recently, not all of my subscriptions have been showing up.
The sections also seem to randomly change order. July 25, — 1: Thanks a ton Nonetheless We are experiencing problem with ur rss. Can there be any person obtaining identical rss dilemma? Anyone who knows kindly respond. DLS Let them draw up the plans. One that favors the Republicans and the other that favors the Democrats.
When they have each plan perfectly laid out and exactly the way each party wants it then come to me and Ill flip a coin. When they come to you, shoot them, then substitute your own, better plan. Mtrnwn infona pak…smoga spirit menulis tetap terjaga.. Ohya, betul, semoga spirit menulis tetap terjaga. Ive been sitting here quite a while trying to think of what to say. I want to say somthing but I am at a loss for words. I wonder why the other experts of this sector do not notice this. You must continue your writing.
I write a leave a response whenever I like a article on a website or I havesomething to contribute to the conversation. It is a result of the passion communicated in the article I browsed. Wo macht der Gatte denn jetzt ein Loch? Your hair looks amazing! I was just contemplating going back to ombre.. I tried it at home myself and had the same reaction. A fresh hair coloring really changes a mood..
I think I might take the plunge as well.. I always find myself looking for your posts from time to time. I really am stoked about this phenomenon. The other nightWe caught a sphere on our iPhones darting acrossThe night sky. Best of luck guys. Nicole, thank you for taking the time to capture us with all the things we love: I like this web blog very much, Its a real nice billet to read and receive info. This is my new web site…Hey to each.
Please Go To my new web business and analyze your opinions. You Can Easily Find too much info online about me as well my work. Have A Very Good day…. I have been surfing online more than three hours today, yet I never found any interesting article like yours. It is pretty worth enough for me. Personally, if all site owners and bloggers made good content as you did, the internet will be much more useful than ever before. I believe it is because of her that I have a sense of responsibility and a safe foundation from which to explore the world.
Thank you, Andi, for agreeing to our interview and sharing your experiences! Your favorite reason seemed to be on the web the easiest thing to be aware of. You managed to hit the nail upon the top and defined out the whole thing without having side-effects , people could take a signal. Will likely be back to get more. Man, that was tasty. Thanks again, and happy holidays! I really want to get this figure but I would rather get the Amiami limited edition purple one. Can anyone tell me how to get limited edition figures with preorders all filled up from amiami?
I always visit your blog and retrieve everything you post here but I never commented but today when I saw this post I couldnt stop myself from commenting here Fantastic article mate. Would you mind if I share your blog with my myspace group? Please let me know. Going to start on veal aid with steroids and an anti-shingle med in 2 weeks. I love the amazing color combinations you come up with! The rust and brown look great together, and I love how you worked other colors into the mix as well. And Georgie is just adorable! I am very happy to look your article. Will you kindly drop me a mail? It was my first major book convention i got to meet you and get a book sign by you.
I also meet other of my fav authors such as holly black and cassandra clare. Our stake president consulted with the seventy to whom he reported, and was told that it was not church policy to prevent women from giving the opening prayer, even though several units seemed to think it was. I absolutely enjoyed every little bit of it and I have you bookmarked to check out new items you post. It is beautiful price sufficient for me. Personally, if all web owners and bloggers made good content as you probably did, the web will likely be a lot more useful than ever before.
It certainly is something to embed in web pages. Hats off to you! Great to see a level headed young person in this world. You have more intestinal fortitude than we do at 68 yrs. Keep going and this country will be in safe hands with people like you. I do not have a website, but, thank you ever so much for all the GreatInformation!! I would be ever so grateful. Thanks for reading this. I am So Very Grateful to you. Oh wow, this is fan-dab-i-dosey no idea how you spell this…? Love the scene you've created and Tilda looks amazing, beautiful soft colours.
Hope you are feeling much better xxx. I have loaded your website in Three totally different web browsers and I must say this blog loads a lot faster then most. Would you mind contacting me the name of your hosting company? My personal e-mail is: I will even sign up through your own affiliate link if you would like. I am so thankful my mom did these things for us. That she started these new traditions. They truly were such a help to all of us! Merry Christmas, sweet Deb!
Thanks for your sweet comment — it's nice to "meet" you too! I used to call my second wife "honey". Eventually it turned out that one of her something personalities was named "Honey" and that's the only one that was married to me. Well, you never know how these things are going to turn out. Oh Suzanne, I could easily live in so many of those beautiful rooms and the house with the white fences! Even alreadly have the big yellowlab like in one of the photos.
Sounds like a fun time for you! These pictures are amewose! Good to hear from you again! I absolutely love my job and I feel blessed to be giving Beth and William these beautiful memories. Their little girl is so precious and I adored working with all three of them! I experimented with taking a look at your web site with my iphone and the structure doesnt seem to be correct.
Might wanna check it out on WAP as well as it seems most cellular phone layouts are not really working with your website. NOT enjoying it at all. I have to turn autoplay off for every video. Really messes with the experience. Is there some way it can be removed for those of us who don't like it? I also have it measured out as well. Nothing else on the bike changes during transport — it just gets disassembled. It seems that you did not configure a redirectionUrl for off line or online payment.
You can read in Users Guide the options. You can also hire our remote configuration services to configure an offline or online payment. I am grateful for this moment here and now.
I am grateful for this beautiful day and all that is flowing into my life. I am grateful for all the wonderful communities on the internet that I get to connect with regularly. I am grateful for all the love and support that surrounds me now and always. Ah oui je mets beaucoup de coeur tu sais!!! That was just a small part of the episode so there will still be some surprises for you. I think this is a new fave of mine that you have done, soooo adorable and fun, and yes Bella's paper are the best!
I will be playing along with this, what a great sketch, you rock girl!! I do not even know how I ended up here, but I thought this post was great. Yeah, this looks nice and all but there's a lot of missing features. I liked the new channel look until I realized all of my comments, friends, and subscribers aren't seen on my channel. Where did they go? Also, where is the profile information on my channel page? I thought YouTube was trying to be a social community, doesn't seem that way anymore.
I could keep going but the other comments pretty much nailed it. Please fix this Google….. I used to be very happy to find this internet-site. I needed to thanks for your time for this excellent read!! How about you stop destabilizing the Middle East, stealing your neighbors land and resources, stop kidnapping and holding an entire people hostage — i. Hi Juji — Beef stew in 7 minutes? No wonder she's in love! It still freaks me out a little to hear the steam, and yes, if I had a gas stove sob sob I'm sure I would have been able to appreciate the Kuhn Rikon much more.
I like the idea of using the pressure to cook abalone though. Ciao Riccardo ho integrato la tua guida in una pagina php e funziona benissimo, vorrei solo fare una cosa, siccome la pagina in questione potrebbe essere lunga vorrei che il box venisse visualizzato al centro dello schermo e indipendentemente dalla lunghezza della pagina.
PPresident David Palmer R. I learn something totally new and challenging on websites I stumbleupon everyday. At least you fit in a wetsuit. Seriously, you should feel so great for finishing! Alors que pouvons-nous faire? Did Sheva leave us on a loan or transfer? Dear Dawn, I love this…. Love the new family photo; amazing! I can't wait to see all your creations in person.
I have exactly the same thing, and notice there seems to be a drain outlet under the dining room window. Is it a drain for the old coal fired boiler? Just want to say your article is as astonishing. Well with your permission let me to grab your RSS feed to keep up to date with forthcoming post. Thanks a million and please continue the enjoyable work.
How did we miss the most awesome of Orange Lanterns? Warwick Davis running around in an orange suit and top hat is the only way to fly baby. July 24, — Like mother-in-law like daughter-in-law. My bum likes that. Well, I tried this technique with Colgate Tartar Protection toothpaste and it did not work for me. I hoped I could save some money by doing this, but not this time, I guess.
Thanks for the tip anyway. That SOB Gore, hasnt anyone told him that all of the money on the planet belongs to the republicans? I personally dont have time to count ev1 elses money……being so busy counting my own. Are you searching for Gorgeous Older Girls who have experienced a little of life? We are the 1 mature website online and we are centered on delivering you the finest older ladies from throughout the world. Sexy and Sultry females who happen to be absolutely aged to excellence and bare right now.
If a monk could do it now. It'd take more than a single calendar year to pay off? Hello my family member! I wish to say that this post is wonderful, great written and come with approximately all vital infos. I would like to see extra posts like this. Wishes are indeed powerful, wonderful, and something we must be way careful around. I remember this little detail from my visit to the Yucatan. Could this be yet another dimension? I like her without all that fluffy weave and spray tan bronzer. Consciousness remains that most elusive of all human phenomena - one so mysterious, one that even our highly developed knowledge of brain function can only partly explain.
This book is unique in tracing the origins of consciousness. It takes the investigation back many years in an attempt to uncover just how consciousness might have first emerged. Consciousness did not develop suddenly in humans - it evolved gradually. In 'The Primordial Emotions' , Derek Denton , a world renowned expert on animal instinct and a leader in integrative physiology, investigates the evolution of consciousness.
Central to the book is the idea that the primal emotions - elements of instinctive behaviour - were the first dawning of consciousness. Throughout he examines instinctive behaviours, such as hunger for air, hunger for minerals, thirst, and pain, arguing that the emotions elicited from these behaviours and desire for gratification culminated in the first conscious states. To develop the theory he looks at behaviour at different levels of the evolutionary tree, for example of octopuses, fish, snakes, birds, and elephants. Coupled with findings from neuroimaging studies, and the viewpoints on consciousness from some of the key figures in philosophy and neuroscience, the book presents an accessible and groundbreaking new look at the problem of consciousness.
Could it be that something so 'primitive' as thirst was the impetus? Professor Derek Denton, founding director of the famed Florey Institute in Melbourne has written a new book on this idea. The implications are profound. Tuttavia, la corteccia cingolata anteriore e le altri parti del sistema limbico non operano in modo isolato, ma sono funzionalmente interconnesse con le aree cerebrali superiori LeDoux ; Heilman Per le ragioni sovraesposte le emozioni sono funzioni biologiche che si sono evolute per permettere agli esseri viventi di sopravvivere in un ambiente ostile e di riprodursi.
A queste domande LeDoux risponde sostenendo che in tutti gli animali la paura del predatore, scatenata da un segnale di pericolo, provoca subito alcune reazioni fisiologiche che portano alla fuga o alla paralisi dei movimenti. Le emozioni consistono in un insieme di risposte chimiche e neurali, che formano uno schema pattern. Infatti, con il termine sentimento si designa qualcosa di privato, interno, psicologicamente successivo nel set di cambiamenti che avvengono nel cervello e nel corpo, per i quali si usa invece il termine emozione. Ma sapere che abbiamo un dato sentimento, si verifica solo dopo aver costruito le rappresentazioni di secondo ordine necessarie alla core consciousness.
Damasio definisce queste tracce marcatori somatici: Emozioni di base — come gioia, sorpresa, interesse, rilassamento, eccitazione, paura, rabbia, tristezza — compaiono in ogni individuo precocemente e si manifestano con espressioni facciali tipiche. Alle origini delle emozioni, , tr. Il cervello, la mente e il passato, tr. Einaudi, , Torino.
A survey of the epoch that began early in this century, and an analysis of its latest manifestations: No century in recorded history has experienced so many social transformations and such radical ones as the twentieth century. They, I submit, may turn out to be the most significant events of this, our century, and its lasting legacy. In the developed free-market countries—which contain less than a fifth of the earth's population but are a model for the rest—work and work force, society and polity, are all, in the last decade of this century, qualitatively and quantitatively different not only from what they were in the first years of this century but also from what has existed at any other time in history: Far smaller and far slower social changes in earlier periods triggered civil wars, rebellions, and violent intellectual and spiritual crises.
The extreme social transformations of this century have caused hardly any stir. They have proceeded with a minimum of friction, with a minimum of upheavals, and, indeed, with a minimum of attention from scholars, politicians, the press, and the public. To be sure, this century of ours may well have been the cruelest and most violent in history, with its world and civil wars, its mass tortures, ethnic cleansings, genocides, and holocausts.
But all these killings, all these horrors inflicted on the human race by this century's murderous "charismatics," hindsight clearly shows, were just that: Indeed, if this century proves one thing, it is the futility of politics. Even the most dogmatic believer in historical determinism would have a hard time explaining the social transformations of this century as caused by the headline-making political events, or the headline-making political events as caused by the social transformations.
But it is the social transformations, like ocean currents deep below the hurricane-tormented surface of the sea, that have had the lasting, indeed the permanent, effect. They, rather than all the violence of the political surface, have transformed not only the society but also the economy, the community, and the polity we live in. The age of social transformation will not come to an end with the year —it will not even have peaked by then. Before the First World War, farmers composed the largest single group in every country. They no longer made up the population everywhere, as they had from the dawn of history to the end of the Napoleonic Wars, a hundred years earlier.
But farmers still made up a near-majority in every developed country except England and Belgium—in Germany, France, Japan, the United States—and, of course, in all underdeveloped countries, too. On the eve of the First World War it was considered a self-evident axiom that developed countries—the United States and Canada being the only exceptions—would increasingly have to rely on food imports from nonindustrial, nondeveloped areas. Today only Japan among major developed free-market countries is a heavy importer of food.
It is one unnecessarily, for its weakness as a food producer is largely the result of an obsolete rice-subsidy policy that prevents the country from developing a modern, productive agriculture. And in all developed free-market countries, including Japan, farmers today are at most five percent of the population and work force—that is, one tenth of the proportion of eighty years ago. Actually, productive farmers make up less than half of the total farm population, or no more than two percent of the work force.
And these agricultural producers are not "farmers" in most senses of the word; they are "agribusiness," which is arguably the most capital-intensive, most technology-intensive, and most information-intensive industry around. Traditional farmers are close to extinction even in Japan. And those that remain have become a protected species kept alive only by enormous subsidies. The second-largest group in the population and work force of every developed country around was composed of live-in servants.
They were considered as much a law of nature as farmers were. Census categories of the time defined a "lower middle class" household as one that employed fewer than three servants, and as a percentage of the work force domestics grew steadily up to the First World War. Eighty years later live-in domestic servants scarcely exist in developed countries. Few people born since the Second World War—that is, few people under fifty—have even seen any except on the stage or in old movies.
In the developed society of farmers are little but objects of nostalgia, and domestic servants are not even that. Yet these enormous transformations in all developed free-market countries were accomplished without civil war and, in fact, in almost total silence. Only now that their farm population has shrunk to near zero do the totally urban French loudly assert that theirs should be a "rural country" with a "rural civilization. One reason why the transformations caused so little stir indeed, the main reason was that by a new class, the blue-collar worker in manufacturing industry—Marx's "proletarian"—had become socially dominant.
Farmers were loudly adjured to "raise less corn and more hell," but they paid little attention. Domestic servants were clearly the most exploited class around. But when people before the First World War talked or wrote about the "social question," they meant blue-collar industrial workers. Blue-collar industrial workers were still a fairly small minority of the population and work force—right up to they made up an eighth or a sixth of the total at most—and were still vastly outnumbered by the traditional lower classes of farmers and domestic servants.
But early twentieth-century society was obsessed with blue-collar workers, fixated on them, bewitched by them. Farmers and domestic servants were everywhere. But as classes, they were invisible. Domestic servants lived and worked inside individual homes or on individual farms in small and isolated groups of two or three. Farmers, too, were dispersed. More important, these traditional lower classes were not organized. Indeed, they could not be organized. Slaves employed in mining or in producing goods had revolted frequently in the ancient world—though always unsuccessfully.
But there is no mention in any book I ever read of a single demonstration or a single protest march by domestic servants in any place, at any time. There have been peasant revolts galore. But except for two Chinese revolts in the nineteenth century—the Taiping Rebellion, in midcentury, and the Boxer Rebellion, at the century's end, both of which lasted for years and came close to overturning the regime—all peasant rebellions in history have fizzled out after a few bloody weeks. Peasants, history shows, are very hard to organize and do not stay organized—which is why they earned Marx's contempt.
The new class, industrial workers, was extremely visible. This is what made these workers a "class. And they soon proved eminently organizable, with the first strikes occurring almost as soon as there were factory workers. Charles Dickens's harrowing tale of murderous labor conflict, Hard Times, was published in , only six years after Marx and Engels wrote The Communist Manifesto. By it had become quite clear that industrial workers would not become the majority, as Marx had predicted only a few decades earlier.
They therefore would not overwhelm the capitalists by their sheer numbers. Yet the most influential radical writer of the period before the First World War, the French ex-Marxist and revolutionary syndicalist Georges Sorel, found widespread acceptance for his thesis that the proletarians would overturn the existing order and take power by their organization and in and through the violence of the general strike. It was not only Lenin who made Sorel's thesis the foundation of his revision of Marxism and built around it his strategy in and Both Mussolini and Hitler—and Mao, ten years later—built their strategies on Sorel's thesis.
Mao's "power grows out of the barrel of a gun" is almost a direct quote from Sorel. The industrial worker became the "social question" of because he was the first lower class in history that could be organized and could stay organized. No class in history has ever risen faster than the blue-collar worker. And no class in history has ever fallen faster. In , the year of Marx's death, "proletarians" were still a minority not just of the population but also of industrial workers. The majority in industry were then skilled workers employed in small craft shops, each containing twenty or thirty workers at most.
Of the anti-heroes of the nineteenth century's best "proletarian" novel, The Princess Casamassima, by Henry James—published in and surely only Henry James could have given such a title to a story of working-class terrorists! By "industrial worker" had become synonymous with "machine operator" and implied employment in a factory along with hundreds if not thousands of people.
These factory workers were indeed Marx's proletarians—without social position, without political power, without economic or purchasing power. The workers of —and even of —received no pensions, no paid vacation, no overtime pay, no extra pay for Sunday or night work, no health or old-age insurance except in Germany , no unemployment compensation except, after , in Britain ; they had no job security whatever.
Fifty years later, in the s, industrial workers had become the largest single group in every developed country, and unionized industrial workers in mass-production industry which was then dominant everywhere had attained upper-middle-class income levels. They had extensive job security, pensions, long paid vacations, and comprehensive unemployment insurance or "lifetime employment. In Britain the labor unions were considered to be the "real government," with greater power than the Prime Minister and Parliament, and much the same was true elsewhere.
In the United States, too—as in Germany, France, and Italy—the labor unions had emerged as the country's most powerful and best organized political force. And in Japan they had come close, in the Toyota and Nissan strikes of the late forties and early fifties, to overturning the system and taking power themselves. Thirty-five years later, in , industrial workers and their unions were in retreat. They had become marginal in numbers.
Whereas industrial workers who make or move things had accounted for two fifths of the American work force in the s, they accounted for less than one fifth in the early s—that is, for no more than they had accounted for in , when their meteoric rise began. In the other developed free-market countries the decline was slower at first, but after it began to accelerate everywhere.
By the year or , in every developed free market country, industrial workers will account for no more than an eighth of the work force. Union power has been declining just as fast. Unlike domestic servants, industrial workers will not disappear—any more than agricultural producers have disappeared or will disappear. But just as the traditional small farmer has become a recipient of subsidies rather than a producer, so will the traditional industrial worker become an auxiliary employee.
His place is already being taken by the "technologist"—someone who works both with hands and with theoretical knowledge. Examples are computer technicians, x-ray technicians, physical therapists, medical-lab technicians, pulmonary technicians, and so on, who together have made up the fastest-growing group in the U.
And instead of a class—a coherent, recognizable, defined, and self-conscious group—industrial workers may soon be just another "pressure group. Chroniclers of the rise of the industrial worker tend to highlight the violent episodes—especially the clashes between strikers and the police, as in America's Pullman strike.
The reason is probably that the theoreticians and propagandists of socialism, anarchism, and communism—beginning with Marx and continuing to Herbert Marcuse in the s—incessantly wrote and talked of "revolution" and "violence. The enormous violence of this century—the world wars, ethnic cleansings, and so on—was all violence from above rather than violence from below; and it was unconnected with the transformations of society, whether the dwindling of farmers, the disappearance of domestic servants, or the rise of the industrial worker.
In fact, no one even tries anymore to explain these great convulsions as part of "the crisis of capitalism," as was standard Marxist rhetoric only thirty years ago. Contrary to Marxist and syndicalist predictions, the rise of the industrial worker did not destabilize society. Instead it has emerged as the century's most stabilizing social development. It explains why the disappearance of the farmer and the domestic servant produced no social crises. Both the flight from the land and the flight from domestic service were voluntary. Farmers and maids were not "pushed off" or "displaced.
Industrial jobs required no skills they did not already possess, and no additional knowledge. In fact, farmers on the whole had a good deal more skill than was required to be a machine operator in a mass-production plant—and so did many domestic servants.
To be sure, industrial work paid poorly until the First World War. But it paid better than farming or household work. Industrial workers in the United States until —and in some countries, including Japan, until the Second World War—worked long hours. But they worked shorter hours than farmers and domestic servants. What's more, they worked specified hours: The history books record the squalor of early industry, the poverty of the industrial workers, and their exploitation.
Workers did indeed live in squalor and poverty, and they were exploited. But they lived better than those on a farm or in a household, and were generally treated better. Proof of this is that infant mortality dropped immediately when farmers and domestic servants moved into industrial work. Historically, cities had never reproduced themselves. They had depended for their perpetuation on constant new recruits from the countryside.
This was still true in the mid-nineteenth century. But with the spread of factory employment the city became the center of population growth. In part this was a result of new public-health measures: These measures—and they were effective mostly in the city—counteracted, or at least contained, the hazards of crowding that had made the traditional city a breeding ground for pestilence. But the largest single factor in the exponential drop in infant mortality as industrialization spread was surely the improvement in living conditions brought about by the factory.
Housing and nutrition became better, and hard work and accidents came to take less of a toll. The drop in infant mortality—and with it the explosive growth in population—correlates with only one development: The early factory was indeed the "Satanic Mill" of William Blake's great poem. But the countryside was not "England's green and pleasant Land" of which Blake sang; it was a picturesque but even more satanic slum. For farmers and domestic servants, industrial work was an opportunity. It was, in fact, the first opportunity that social history had given them to better themselves substantially without having to emigrate.
In the developed free-market countries over the past or years every generation has been able to expect to do substantially better than the generation preceding it. The main reason has been that farmers and domestic servants could and did become industrial workers. Because industrial workers are concentrated in groups, systematic work on their productivity was possible. Beginning in , two years before Marx's death, the systematic study of work, tasks, and tools raised the productivity of manual work in making and moving things by three to four percent compound on average per year—for a fiftyfold increase in output per worker over years.
On this rest all the economic and social gains of the past century. And contrary to what "everybody knew" in the nineteenth century—not only Marx but all the conservatives as well, such as J. Morgan, Bismarck, and Disraeli—practically all these gains have accrued to the industrial worker, half of them in the form of sharply reduced working hours with the cuts ranging from 40 percent in Japan to 50 percent in Germany , and half of them in the form of a twenty-five fold increase in the real wages of industrial workers who make or move things.
There were thus very good reasons why the rise of the industrial worker was peaceful rather than violent, let alone revolutionary. But what explains the fact that the fall of the industrial worker has been equally peaceful and almost entirely free of social protest, of upheaval, of serious dislocation, at least in the United States? The rise of the class succeeding industrial workers is not an opportunity for industrial workers.
It is a challenge. The newly emerging dominant group is "knowledge workers. I coined it in a book, Landmarks of Tomorrow. By the end of this century knowledge workers will make up a third or more of the work force in the United States—as large a proportion as manufacturing workers ever made up, except in wartime. The majority of them will be paid at least as well as, or better than, manufacturing workers ever were. And the new jobs offer much greater opportunities. But—and this is a big but—the great majority of the new jobs require qualifications the industrial worker does not possess and is poorly equipped to acquire.
They require a good deal of formal education and the ability to acquire and to apply theoretical and analytical knowledge. They require a different approach to work and a different mind-set. Above all, they require a habit of continuous learning. Displaced industrial workers thus cannot simply move into knowledge work or services the way displaced farmers and domestic workers moved into industrial work.
At the very least they have to change their basic attitudes, values, and beliefs. In the closing decades of this century the industrial work force has shrunk faster and further in the United States than in any other developed country—while industrial production has grown faster than in any other developed country except Japan. The shift has aggravated America's oldest and least tractable problem: In the fifty years since the Second World War the economic position of African-Americans in America has improved faster than that of any other group in American social history—or in the social history of any country.
Three fifths of America's blacks rose into middle class incomes; before the Second World War the figure was one twentieth. But half that group rose into middle-class incomes and not into middle class jobs. Since the Second World War more and more blacks have moved into blue-collar unionized mass-production industry—that is, into jobs paying middle-class and upper-middle-class wages while requiring neither education nor skill.
These are precisely the jobs, however, that are disappearing the fastest. What is amazing is not that so many blacks did not acquire an education but that so many did. The economically rational thing for a young black in postwar America was not to stay in school and learn; it was to leave school as early as possible and get one of the plentiful mass-production jobs. As a result, the fall of the industrial worker has hit America's blacks disproportionately hard—quantitatively, but qualitatively even more.
It has blunted what was the most potent role model in the black community in America: But, of course, blacks are a minority of the population and work force in the United States. For the overwhelming majority—whites, but also Latinos and Asians—the fall of the industrial worker has caused amazingly little disruption and nothing that could be called an upheaval. Even in communities that were once totally dependent on mass-production plants that have gone out of business or have drastically slashed employment steel cities in western Pennsylvania and eastern Ohio, for instance, or automobile cities like Detroit and Flint, Michigan , unemployment rates for nonblack adults fell within a few short years to levels barely higher than the U.
Even in these communities there has been no radicalization of America's blue-collar workers. The only explanation is that for the nonblack blue-collar community the development came as no surprise, however unwelcome, painful, and threatening it may have been to individual workers and their families. Psychologically—but in terms of values, perhaps, rather than in terms of emotions—America's industrial workers must have been prepared to accept as right and proper the shift to jobs that require formal education and that pay for knowledge rather than for manual work, whether skilled or unskilled.
In the United States the shift had by or so largely been accomplished. But so far it has occurred only in the United States. In the other developed free-market countries, in western and northern Europe and in Japan, it is just beginning in the s. It is, however, certain to proceed rapidly in these countries from now on, perhaps faster than it originally did in the United States. The fall of the industrial worker in the developed free-market countries will also have a major impact outside the developed world. Developing countries can no longer expect to base their development on their comparative labor advantage—that is, on cheap industrial labor.
It is widely believed, especially by labor-union officials, that the fall of the blue-collar industrial worker in the developed countries was largely, if not entirely, caused by moving production "offshore" to countries with abundant supplies of unskilled labor and low wage rates. But this is not true. There was something to the belief thirty years ago. Japan, Taiwan, and, later, South Korea did indeed as explained in some detail in my book Post-Capitalist Society gain their initial advantage in the world market by combining, almost overnight, America's invention of training for full productivity with wage costs that were still those of a pre-industrial country.
But this technique has not worked at all since or In the s only an insignificant percentage of manufactured goods imported into the United States are produced abroad because of low labor costs. While total imports in accounted for about 12 percent of the U. Practically none of the decline in American manufacturing employment from some 30 or 35 percent of the work force to 15 or 18 percent can therefore be attributed to moving work to low-wage countries. The main competition for American manufacturing industry—for instance, in automobiles, in steel, and in machine tools—has come from countries such as Japan and Germany, where wage costs have long been equal to, if not higher than, those in the United States.
The comparative advantage that now counts is in the application of knowledge—for example, in Japan's total quality management, lean manufacturing processes, just-in-time delivery, and price-based costing, or in the customer service offered by medium-sized German or Swiss engineering companies. This means, however, that developing countries can no longer expect to base their development on low wages. They, too, must learn to base it on applying knowledge—just at the time when most of them China, India, and much of Latin America, let alone black Africa will have to find jobs for millions of uneducated and unskilled young people who are qualified for little except yesterday's blue-collar industrial jobs.
But for the developed countries, too, the shift to knowledge-based work poses enormous social challenges. Despite the factory, industrial society was still essentially a traditional society in its basic social relationships of production. But the emerging society, the one based on knowledge and knowledge workers, is not. It is the first society in which ordinary people—and that means most people—do not earn their daily bread by the sweat of their brow.
It is the first society in which "honest work" does not mean a callused hand. It is also the first society in which not everybody does the same work, as was the case when the huge majority were farmers or, as seemed likely only forty or thirty years ago, were going to be machine operators. This is far more than a social change. It is a change in the human condition. What it means—what are the values, the commitments, the problems, of the new society—we do not know.
Knowledge workers will not be the majority in the knowledge society, but in many if not most developed societies they will be the largest single population and work-force group. And even where outnumbered by other groups, knowledge workers will give the emerging knowledge society its character, its leadership, its social profile. They may not be the ruling class of the knowledge society, but they are already its leading class.
And in their characteristics, social position, values, and expectations, they differ fundamentally from any group in history that has ever occupied the leading position. In the first place, knowledge workers gain access to jobs and social position through formal education. A great deal of knowledge work requires highly developed manual skill and involves substantial work with one's hands. An extreme example is neurosurgery. The neurosurgeon's performance capacity rests on formal education and theoretical knowledge.
An absence of manual skill disqualifies one for work as a neurosurgeon. But manual skill alone, no matter how advanced, will never enable anyone to be a neurosurgeon. The education that is required for neurosurgery and other kinds of knowledge work can be acquired only through formal schooling. It cannot be acquired through apprenticeship. Knowledge work varies tremendously in the amount and kind of formal knowledge required. Some jobs have fairly low requirements, and others require the kind of knowledge the neurosurgeon possesses.
But even if the knowledge itself is quite primitive, only formal education can provide it. Education will become the center of the knowledge society, and the school its key institution. What knowledge must everybody have? What is "quality" in learning and teaching?
These will of necessity become central concerns of the knowledge society, and central political issues. In fact, the acquisition and distribution of formal knowledge may come to occupy the place in the politics of the knowledge society which the acquisition and distribution of property and income have occupied in our politics over the two or three centuries that we have come to call the Age of Capitalism.
In the knowledge society, clearly, more and more knowledge, and especially advanced knowledge, will be acquired well past the age of formal schooling and increasingly, perhaps, through educational processes that do not center on the traditional school. But at the same time, the performance of the schools and the basic values of the schools will be of increasing concern to society as a whole, rather than being considered professional matters that can safely be left to "educators.
We can also predict with confidence that we will redefine what it means to be an educated person. Traditionally, and especially during the past years perhaps since or so, at least in the West, and since about that time in Japan as well , an educated person was somebody who had a prescribed stock of formal knowledge. The Germans called this knowledge allgemeine Bildung, and the English and, following them, the nineteenth century Americans called it the liberal arts.
Increasingly, an educated person will be somebody who has learned how to learn, and who continues learning, especially by formal education, throughout his or her lifetime. There are obvious dangers to this. For instance, society could easily degenerate into emphasizing formal degrees rather than performance capacity. It could fall prey to sterile Confucian mandarins—a danger to which the American university is singularly susceptible. On the other hand, it could overvalue immediately usable, "practical" knowledge and underrate the importance of fundamentals, and of wisdom altogether.
A society in which knowledge workers dominate is under threat from a new class conflict: The productivity of knowledge work—still abysmally low—will become the economic challenge of the knowledge society. On it will depend the competitive position of every single country, every single industry, every single institution within society. The productivity of the nonknowledge, services worker will become the social challenge of the knowledge society. On it will depend the ability of the knowledge society to give decent incomes, and with them dignity and status, to non-knowledge workers.
No society in history has faced these challenges. But equally new are the opportunities of the knowledge society. In the knowledge society, for the first time in history, the possibility of leadership will be open to all. Also, the possibility of acquiring knowledge will no longer depend on obtaining a prescribed education at a given age. Learning will become the tool of the individual—available to him or her at any age—if only because so much skill and knowledge can be acquired by means of the new learning technologies.
Another implication is that how well an individual, an organization, an industry, a country, does in acquiring and applying knowledge will become the key competitive factor. The knowledge society will inevitably become far more competitive than any society we have yet known—for the simple reason that with knowledge being universally accessible, there will be no excuses for nonperformance. There will be no "poor" countries.
There will only be ignorant countries. And the same will be true for companies, industries, and organizations of all kinds. It will be true for individuals, too. In fact, developed societies have already become infinitely more competitive for individuals than were the societies of the beginning of this century, let alone earlier ones. I have been speaking of knowledge.
But a more accurate term is "knowledges," because the knowledge of the knowledge society will be fundamentally different from what was considered knowledge in earlier societies—and, in fact, from what is still widely considered knowledge. The knowledge of the German allgemeine Bildung or of the Anglo-American liberal arts had little to do with one's life's work.
It focused on the person and the person's development, rather than on any application—if, indeed, it did not, like the nineteenth-century liberal arts, pride itself on having no utility whatever. In the knowledge society knowledge for the most part exists only in application. Nothing the x-ray technician needs to know can be applied to market research, for instance, or to teaching medieval history. The central work force in the knowledge society will therefore consist of highly specialized people.
In fact, it is a mistake to speak of "generalists. But "generalists" in the sense in which we used to talk of them are coming to be seen as dilettantes rather than educated people. This, too, is new. Historically, workers were generalists. They did whatever had to be done—on the farm, in the household, in the craftsman's shop.
This was also true of industrial workers. But knowledge workers, whether their knowledge is primitive or advanced, whether there is a little of it or a great deal, will by definition be specialized. Applied knowledge is effective only when it is specialized. Indeed, the more highly specialized, the more effective it is.
This goes for technicians who service computers, x-ray machines, or the engines of fighter planes. But it applies equally to work that requires the most advanced knowledge, whether research in genetics or research in astrophysics or putting on the first performance of a new opera. Again, the shift from knowledge to knowledges offers tremendous opportunities to the individual. It makes possible a career as a knowledge worker. But it also presents a great many new problems and challenges. It demands for the first time in history that people with knowledge take responsibility for making themselves understood by people who do not have the same knowledge base.
That knowledge in the knowledge society has to be highly specialized to be productive implies two new requirements: There is a great deal of talk these days about "teams" and "teamwork. Actually people have always worked in teams; very few people ever could work effectively by themselves. The farmer had to have a wife, and the farm wife had to have a husband. The two worked as a team. And both worked as a team with their employees, the hired hands. The craftsman also had to have a wife, with whom he worked as a team—he took care of the craft work, and she took care of the customers, the apprentices, and the business altogether.
And both worked as a team with journeymen and apprentices. Much discussion today assumes that there is only one kind of team. Actually there are quite a few. But until now the emphasis has been on the individual worker and not on the team. With knowledge work growing increasingly effective as it is increasingly specialized, teams become the work unit rather than the individual himself.
The team that is being touted now—I call it the "jazz combo" team—is only one kind of team. It is actually the most difficult kind of team both to assemble and to make work effectively, and the kind that requires the longest time to gain performance capacity. We will have to learn to use different kinds of teams for different purposes.
We will have to learn to understand teams—and this is something to which, so far, very little attention has been paid. The understanding of teams, the performance capacities of different kinds of teams, their strengths and limitations, and the trade-offs between various kinds of teams will thus become central concerns in the management of people. Equally important is the second implication of the fact that knowledge workers are of necessity specialists: Only the organization can provide the basic continuity that knowledge workers need in order to be effective.
Only the organization can convert the specialized knowledge of the knowledge worker into performance. By itself, specialized knowledge does not yield performance. The surgeon is not effective unless there is a diagnosis—which, by and large, is not the surgeon's task and not even within the surgeon's competence. As a loner in his or her research and writing, the historian can be very effective. But to educate students, a great many other specialists have to contribute—people whose specialty may be literature, or mathematics, or other areas of history. And this requires that the specialist have access to an organization.
This access may be as a consultant, or it may be as a provider of specialized services. But for the majority of knowledge workers it will be as employees, full-time or part-time, of an organization, such as a government agency, a hospital, a university, a business, or a labor union. In the knowledge society it is not the individual who performs. The individual is a cost center rather than a performance center.
It is the organization that performs. Most knowledge workers will spend most if not all of their working lives as "employees. Individually, knowledge workers are dependent on the job. They receive a wage or salary. They have been hired and can be fired. Legally each is an employee. But collectively they are the capitalists; increasingly, through their pension funds and other savings, the employees own the means of production. In traditional economics—and by no means only in Marxist economics—there is a sharp distinction between the "wage fund," all of which goes into consumption, and the "capital fund," or that part of the total income stream that is available for investment.
And most social theory of industrial society is based, one way or another, on the relationship between the two, whether in conflict or in necessary and beneficial cooperation and balance. In the knowledge society the two merge. The pension fund is "deferred wages," and as such is a wage fund. But it is also increasingly the main source of capital for the knowledge society. Perhaps more important, in the knowledge society the employees—that is, knowledge workers—own the tools of production.
Marx's great insight was that the factory worker does not and cannot own the tools of production, and therefore is "alienated. The capitalist had to own the steam engine and to control it. Increasingly, the true investment in the knowledge society is not in machines and tools but in the knowledge of the knowledge worker. Without that knowledge the machines, no matter how advanced and sophisticated, are unproductive. The market researcher needs a computer. But increasingly this is the researcher's own personal computer, and it goes along wherever he or she goes.
The true "capital equipment" of market research is the knowledge of markets, of statistics, and of the application of market research to business strategy, which is lodged between the researcher's ears and is his or her exclusive and inalienable property. The surgeon needs the operating room of the hospital and all its expensive capital equipment. But the surgeon's true capital investment is twelve or fifteen years of training and the resulting knowledge, which the surgeon takes from one hospital to the next. Without that knowledge the hospital's expensive operating rooms are so much waste and scrap.
This is true whether the knowledge worker commands advanced knowledge, like a surgeon, or simple and fairly elementary knowledge, like a junior accountant. In either case it is the knowledge investment that determines whether the employee is productive or not, more than the tools, machines, and capital furnished by an organization. The industrial worker needed the capitalist infinitely more than the capitalist needed the industrial worker—the basis for Marx's assertion that there would always be a surplus of industrial workers, an "industrial reserve army," that would make sure that wages could not possibly rise above the subsistence level probably Marx's most egregious error.
In the knowledge society the most probable assumption for organizations—and certainly the assumption on which they have to conduct their affairs—is that they need knowledge workers far more than knowledge workers need them. There was endless debate in the Middle Ages about the hierarchy of knowledges, with philosophy claiming to be the "queen.
There is no higher or lower knowledge. When the patient's complaint is an ingrown toenail, the podiatrist's knowledge, not that of the brain surgeon, controls—even though the brain surgeon has received many more years of training and commands a much larger fee. And if an executive is posted to a foreign country, the knowledge he or she needs, and in a hurry, is fluency in a foreign language—something every native of that country has mastered by age three, without any great investment.
The knowledge of the knowledge society, precisely because it is knowledge only when applied in action, derives its rank and standing from the situation. In other words, what is knowledge in one situation, such as fluency in Korean for the American executive posted to Seoul, is only information, and not very relevant information at that, when the same executive a few years later has to think through his company's market strategy for Korea.
Knowledges were always seen as fixed stars, so to speak, each occupying its own position in the universe of knowledge. In the knowledge society knowledges are tools, and as such are dependent for their importance and position on the task to be performed. Because the knowledge society perforce has to be a society of organizations, its central and distinctive organ is management. When our society began to talk of management, the term meant "business management"—because large-scale business was the first of the new organizations to become visible.
But we have learned in this past half century that management is the distinctive organ of all organizations. All of them require management, whether they use the term or not. All managers do the same things, whatever the purpose of their organization. All of them have to bring people—each possessing different knowledge- together for joint performance. All of them have to make human strengths productive in performance and human weaknesses irrelevant. All of them have to think through what results are wanted in the organization—and have then to define objectives.
All of them are responsible for thinking through what I call the theory of the business—that is, the assumptions on which the organization bases its performance and actions, and the assumptions that the organization has made in deciding what not to do. All of them must think through strategies—that is, the means through which the goals of the organization become performance.
All of them have to define the values of the organization, its system of rewards and punishments, its spirit and its culture. In all organizations managers need both the knowledge of management as work and discipline and the knowledge and understanding of the organization itself—its purposes, its values, its environment and markets, its core competencies. Management as a practice is very old. The most successful executive in all history was surely that Egyptian who, 4, years or more ago, first conceived the pyramid, without any precedent, designed it, and built it, and did so in an astonishingly short time.
That first pyramid still stands. But as a discipline management is barely fifty years old. It was first dimly perceived around the time of the First World War. Since then it has been the fastest-growing new function, and the study of it the fastest-growing new discipline. No function in history has emerged as quickly as has management in the past fifty or sixty years, and surely none has had such worldwide sweep in such a short period. Management is still taught in most business schools as a bundle of techniques, such as budgeting and personnel relations.
To be sure, management, like any other work, has its own tools and its own techniques. But just as the essence of medicine is not urinalysis important though that is , the essence of management is not techniques and procedures. The essence of management is to make knowledges productive. Management, in other words, is a social function. And in its practice management is truly a liberal art. The old communities—family, village, parish, and so on—have all but disappeared in the knowledge society. Their place has largely been taken by the new unit of social integration, the organization.
Where community was fate, organization is voluntary membership. Where community claimed the entire person, organization is a means to a person's ends, a tool. For years a hot debate has been raging, especially in the West: Nobody would claim that the new organization is "organic. But who, then, does the community tasks? Two hundred years ago whatever social tasks were being done were done in all societies by a local community. Very few if any of these tasks are being done by the old communities anymore. Nor would they be capable of doing them, considering that they no longer have control of their members or even a firm hold over them.
People no longer stay where they were born, either in terms of geography or in terms of social position and status. By definition, a knowledge society is a society of mobility. And all the social functions of the old communities, whether performed well or poorly and most were performed very poorly indeed , presupposed that the individual and the family would stay put. But the essence of a knowledge society is mobility in terms of where one lives, mobility in terms of what one does, mobility in terms of one's affiliations. People no longer have roots. People no longer have a neighborhood that controls what their home is like, what they do, and, indeed, what their problems are allowed to be.
The knowledge society is a society in which many more people than ever before can be successful. But it is therefore, by definition, also a society in which many more people than ever before can fail, or at least come in second. And if only because the application of knowledge to work has made developed societies so much richer than any earlier society could even dream of becoming, the failures, whether poor people or alcoholics, battered women or juvenile delinquents, are seen as failures of society.
Who, then, takes care of the social tasks in the knowledge society? We cannot ignore them. But the traditional community is incapable of tackling them. Two answers have emerged in the past century or so—a majority answer and a dissenting opinion. Both have proved to be wrong. The majority answer goes back more than a hundred years, to the s, when Bismarck's Germany took the first faltering steps toward the welfare state.
This is still probably the answer that most people accept, especially in the developed countries of the West—even though most people probably no longer fully believe it. But it has been totally disproved. Modern government, especially since the Second World War, has everywhere become a huge welfare bureaucracy.
And the bulk of the budget in every developed country today is devoted to Entitlements—to payments for all kinds of social services. Yet in every developed country society is becoming sicker rather than healthier, and social problems are multiplying. Government has a big role to play in social tasks—the role of policymaker, of standard setter, and, to a substantial extent, of paymaster. But as the agency to run social services, it has proved almost totally incompetent. I argued then that the new organization—and fifty years ago that meant the large business enterprise—would have to be the community in which the individual would find status and function, with the workplace community becoming the one in and through which social tasks would be organized.
In Japan though quite independently and without any debt to me the large employer—government agency or business—has indeed increasingly attempted to serve as a community for its employees. Lifetime employment is only one affirmation of this. Company housing, company health plans, company vacations, and so on all emphasize for the Japanese employee that the employer, and especially the big corporation, is the community and the successor to yesterday's village—even to yesterday's family. This, however, has not worked either. There is need, especially in the West, to bring the employee increasingly into the government of the workplace community.
What is now called empowerment is very similar to the things I talked about fifty years ago. But it does not create a community. Nor does it create the structure through which the social tasks of the knowledge society can be tackled. In fact, practically all these tasks—whether education or health care; the anomies and diseases of a developed and, especially, a rich society, such as alcohol and drug abuse; or the problems of incompetence and irresponsibility such as those of the underclass in the American city—lie outside the employing institution.
The right answer to the question Who takes care of the social challenges of the knowledge society? The answer is a separate and new social sector. It is less than fifty years, I believe, since we first talked in the United States of the two sectors of a modern society—the "public sector" government and the "private sector" business. In the past twenty years the United States has begun to talk of a third sector, the "nonprofit sector"—those organizations that increasingly take care of the social challenges of a modern society. In the United States, with its tradition of independent and competitive churches, such a sector has always existed.
Even now churches are the largest single part of the social sector in the United States, receiving almost half the money given to charitable institutions, and about a third of the time volunteered by individuals. But the nonchurch part of the social sector has been the growth sector in the United States. In the early s about a million organizations were registered in the United States as nonprofit or charitable organizations doing social-sector work.
The overwhelming majority of these, some 70 percent, have come into existence in the past thirty years. And most are community services concerned with life on this earth rather than with the Kingdom of Heaven. Quite a few of the new organizations are, of course, religious in their orientation, but for the most part these are not churches.
They are "parachurches" engaged in a specific social task, such as the rehabilitation of alcohol and drug addicts, the rehabilitation of criminals, or elementary school education.