Le judaïsme (Religions t. 297) (French Edition)
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The period of exile in Babylon, which came to an end in with the Edict of Cyrus, was also a time when Judaic eschatological thought matured, as made apparent in several prophetic books. Eschatological enquiry has continued throughout the history of the Jewish people, and right up to the present day.
These events were all interpreted from a theological perspective endowing them with meaning.
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Jewish messianism first appeared with the prophet Isaiah 3. He announced the advent of a leader, a king missioned and anointed by God, who would restore the kingdom of David, and establish lasting universal peace, for the States and empires of the world would bear him allegiance. He initially drew on a disparate set of predictions taken from various sources, not on any unified body of doctrine. Gershom Scholem, in his study of Jewish eschatological doctrines over time, distinguishes between two types of messianism that combine in variable ways 4.
The first type is national messianism, largely political in nature. This does not rely on any secret knowledge and is addressed to all, with the predictions of the prophets relating primarily to restoring the kingdom of David. The second type may be traced as far back as the book of Daniel, and was developed by several great authors of the Kabbalah such as Abraham Abulafia thirteenth century.
Judaism has given rise to a series of messianic declarations, taking the form of armed revolts and pacific preaching, though these are too numerous to be listed here. The list is long, and could be extended up to the present day with the messianic teachings of the Hasidic Lubavitch current 8. It should pointed out that messianism is not however a central belief in the Bible, or in Judaism in general 9.
It is possible to be a very orthodox Jew without attaching much importance to it. And those who write about messianism put forward very diverse interpretations. It should nevertheless be observed that messianic themes have a widespread and robust presence in contemporary Judaism, and influence various milieus among the Israeli population Christianity, for its part, traces its roots back to messianic preaching in two ways.
It is messianic in origin, since Jesus came to preach the advent of the Kingdom announced by the prophets of Israel, where this was to be brought to pass by adhering to his mission and even more so by placing faith in his person. The Kingdom preached by Jesus was not political in nature, lying clearly on a horizon of spiritual fulfilment.
But this horizon took on a universal dimension after he was put to death and the announcements of his resurrection, with his disciples declaring he was alive and predicting his return, his parousia.
It is said that when this occurs the spiritual dimension of the Kingdom will be fulfilled definitively, transpiring in a new Earth Hence Christian societies throughout history have awaited the second messianic coming. St Augustine criticised these outbursts vehemently, stating most clearly that the City of God, though admixed with the terrestrial city here on earth, was nevertheless wholly distinct, belonging to a higher order of being.
But millenarian tendencies have occurred throughout subsequent history.
Some of the most famous of these currents are those that draw their inspiration from the work of Joachim of Flore, and the revolts that started to arise as of the Reformation, often transpiring in challenges against the established order The presence of millenarian themes in contemporary Christian thought, especially in the United States, is a well-known fact. This is not the preserve of certain extreme fanatic sects, for these themes having been thoroughly absorbed by the evangelical social fabric, which views the return of the Jews to the Holy Land and the creation of the State of Israel as fulfilling the predictions of the biblical prophets.
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Such a vision of history inevitably has a significant political impact. Let us now turn to eschatology in Muslim lands. It will come suddenly, in a flash. The Arabs of Mecca to whom this message was addressed were invited to repent and place their faith in the unique God, Allah, under threat of terrible punishment, in the form of an unforeseeable, irresistible, and supra- natural catastrophe. Other less clear narrative elements were subsequently added, such as the eschatological role of Jesus But Islamic eschatological doctrines went further than this.
At the time, certain of his Companions did not believe in the reality of his death. There are many indications the first Muslims foresaw the End as very close at hand. The hadiths, or oral teachings attributed to the Prophet Muhammad, contain archaic elements showing he expected the End of History and the world to be imminent: Another hadith refers to his expectation that before dying he would meet Jesus and be able to greet him and should he be unable to do so, at least those of his Companions who survived him would.
The Hour was to arrive one brief generation after his death Further examples could be provided. The thesis put forward by Paul Casanova about the scale of eschatological expectation in early Islam has been confirmed and amended by more recent scholarship It is not possible to come to a firm conclusion about the authenticity of the words attributed to him. For them, Muhammad named his successors, who are the legitimate Imams of the community, but have been rejected by the Sunni majority.
Very many Shiite revolts have occurred over the centuries, several of which met with success. But they all eventually ran out of steam, for their eschatological promises failed to materialise. Such was the fate of the Carmatian State and the Fatimid dynasty in the tenth and eleventh century, and then of the Safavid dynasty in Iran 16 th to 18 th century. That being said, Sunnism at all periods has also produced a sizeable body of apocalyptic preaching.
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The idea that the end of time was very near admittedly diminished over the generations. The Omayyad caliphs waged several vigorous land and sea offensives against Constantinople, though these resulted in failure. Hence the eschatological horizon of the Islamic community expanded, and overly precise predictions about fulfilling the final military campaign petered out. Still, the idea waxed and waned amongst the Sunni community over the course of the centuries. Visions of the advent of the Hour were siphoned into attempts to legitimise political movements, such as that of the Almohads in the Maghreb twelfth and thirteenth century ; this continued up until the modern period in the struggle against colonisation, as was the case with the revolt led by Mahdi Muhammad Ahmad d.
Ibn Khaldun alludes to them, mocking the credulity of the masses who adhere to such preachings which strike him as transparently false This corpus is read widely, and extensively circulated today, not only amongst Islamist networks. I shall resume a few points, selecting those which currently seem to be the most significant, and in particular those referred to recently on social media networks. Translation in English of The Muqaddinah. Their sins will contrast with the supposed admirable virtues of early-generation Muslims.
According to these texts, the end of time will be made manifest by struggles between Muslims The Arab element in Islam will be wholly weakened, as attested in by the advent of the Abbasid dynasty, which saw the social and political ascension of many Iranians and Turks. Society will experience a spectacular increase in wealth, while undergoing profound moral disarray Muslims will consume animal fat and large quantities of alcohol.
This also occurred during the Omayyad and Abbasid empires as a result of conquests and rich booty, but once again the description applies to many periods, including the current one. Religious science will be enormously weakened, with this sometimes being attributed to the large numbers of women in the final phases of history. The role of women will continue to increase, becoming far more numerous than men, and their husbands will obey them whilst neglecting their duties towards their own parents.
On the whole there will be a return to idolatry and all this implies Sexual debauchery will spread openly, spilling out onto the streets, and men will become like animals Homosexuality will become commonplace. All of this will correlate to a weakening of faith and sincerity. There will be ever more apostasies and conversions with every passing day In addition to these general characteristics of the end of time, certain more specific signs recur in the writings.
Sometimes Rome stands in for Constantinople, leading to a certain degree of confusion in more contemporary literature He will win over much of humanity, including many of the faithful, due in particular to the spectacular nature of the miracles he will accomplish, and by the material abundance he will bring about An immense combat will follow, between impious forces and the small remaining number of believers.
The hadiths give many varied and contradictory indications about the origin and circumstances of this combat. According to other hadiths, it will nevertheless be destroyed and abandoned to wild beasts. These fairly contradictory indications seem to suggest that the region regarded as most holy by the Muslim community will be subverted at the end of time, and even perverted by heathenism. It is the true centre, the head of a bird with the Maghreb and the Mashriq as its two wings It will expand to become the uterus for a child.
When they disappear there will no longer be any faith. During the Revolutions of , Jewish emancipation was granted by the Basic Rights of the Frankfurt Parliament Paragraph 13 , which said that civil rights were not to be conditional on religious faith. But only some German states introduced the Frankfurt parliamentary decision as state law, such as Hamburg; other states were reluctant.
By doing so, they hoped to educate the gentiles, and terminate laws which sought to oppress the Jews. Those few states that had refrained from Jewish emancipation were forced to do so by an act of the North German Federation on 3 July , or when they acceded to the newly united Germany in In some countries, emancipation came with a single act. In others, limited rights were granted first in the hope of "changing" the Jews "for the better. The emancipation disrupted the relationship the Jews had with their religion, which could not govern any longer all the actions in their lives.
Many considered a practice of Judaism more closely to the lifestyle of their non-Jewish fellow citizens. The emancipation in France, Italy, Germany, at least during the Empire, permitted many Jews to leave the ghettos and contribute, as a result of the Haskalah , to the development of Reform during the 19th century.
The emancipation contributed moreover to the assimilation of Jews and sometimes to their cultural disappearance when Jews merged through marriage in the surrounding society.
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It was not until Rabbi Samson Raphael Hirsch defined a modern vision of orthodox Judaism, enabling orthodox Jews to participate fully in a society. In doing so, Jews were able to not only see themselves as members of a religious sect, but also as citizens within society. At the same time, however, some [ who? From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.
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The emancipation disrupted the relationship the Jews had with their religion, which could not govern any longer all the actions in their lives. Retrieved from " https: The first type is national messianism, largely political in nature. At the same time, however, some [ who? The list is long, and could be extended up to the present day with the messianic teachings of the Hasidic Lubavitch current 8.