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And how do Iranian and Italian trainee translators differ in terms of their identity? Iranian undergraduate trainee translators tend to have well-developed interdependent identities whereas Italian undergraduates tend to have well-developed self-dependent identities. Iranian and Italian trainee translators differ in terms of their sense of their own identity.

We shall begin by defining different types of identity. Personal, individual, group, collective, gender, national, linguistic, cultural, and professional are probably the most established terms with which we refer to identity. Interestingly, this way of defining identity closely resembles the definition of culture, foregrounding the proximity of the two concepts. Both culture and identity find realization in what they are not referring to ; in excluding and in contrast with others.

Identity has both individual and collective manifestations. In other words, individuals have their own identity, which distinguishes them from other individuals while individuals are members of social groups which are different from other groups. The distinction becomes more significant when we note that societies vary in the degree to which they are more individualist or collectivist. It follows that educational practices should take these differences into consideration.

Camilleri and Malewska-Peyre Self carries various identities depending on the given situation where certain social roles are performed. This implies that in social interactions, only parts of an individual's identity are involved in any given situation Stets and Burke An immediate implication of this view of translator training as a series of social situations is that trainee translators construct their identities in the educational situations they experience.

As mentioned previously, a feature that makes research into identity fascinating yet demanding is the fact that this concept lies at the interface of sociology and psychology, two huge and influential sciences. It is also a reason why teaching is such a complex endeavor.

Similarly, translation is both a social and a psychological endeavor. The three types of identities explored in this study need to be defined here. Personal identity can be explained simply as how we define ourselves. Social identity, according to Tajfel cited in Ashmore, Jussim and Wilder Although Bourdieu himself does not seem to have explicitly defined identity, scholars have investigated this concept based on his theories.

The dispositional, collective, and reflexive components represent personal, social, and professional identities. Similarly, as Cressman points out, the interactions between actors in networks define their identity and because actors can at the same time belong to different networks and depending on the way these interact, their identities can vary. Therefore, in both theories we can consider multiple identities for translators and trainee translators. A similar study was carried out by Dionysios Kapsaskis As an example of how the professional identity of translators is influenced by industrial changes, Kapaskis On the other hand, there are studies that have gone the other way round, namely, they have probed the influence of translation on communities, norms, and identities of different types.

However, such studies are beyond the scope and the primary aims of the present article. She merges ANT with ethnography in order to trace each stage in the translation process of a number of case-studies of literary works. For Bourdieu, realism takes the real to be relational. This relationality is, for instance, visible in the relations between the different types of capital that Bourdieu speaks of, as well as in the interconnectedness of his concepts of habitus, capital, doxa, and illusio.

A major argument of her research is that. They emphasize the role of socialization in the construction of habitus, which together with the capital trainee translators can gain, are both part of, and influential in, their specialization in the field of translator training. His structuralist orientation, reflected in his practice theory and related concepts of agency, field, habitus , capital , doxa and illusio , leaves little doubt of the relevance of his ideas to the sociological analysis of identity, given that, as social agents, individuals work to create social structures which construct their identity in return.

Based on this structure, habitus creates beliefs, practices, and feelings and it is structured by existing conditions Grenfell Habitus, as mentioned above, operates along with other factors. For what we know as practice, Bourdieu presents an equation as follows: Habitus helps us shape our perspective towards the social world in a rather revolutionary way.

By the same token, Stets and Burke We must go back and forth and understand how social structure is the accomplishment of actors, but also how actors always act within the social structure they create. In this game, individuals, groups and institutions compete for better positions.

Social agents learn the rules of the game gradually. They are only equipped with their own points of view. They take time to develop and they are never perfect. ANT has undergone some modifications: The main tenet of the social constructivism paradigm is the construction of knowledge through social interactions, including those in classrooms, hence the significance of collaboration and group work. Thus, it can be argued that social constructivism, and by extension ANT, favors a collective approach to identity and its construction due to its concepts of network and translation.

The central notion of an actor or agent or actant is understood to include both human and nonhuman agents: The network has no centre, all the elements are interdependent. Important roles are played by knowledge systems and by economic factors, as well as by people and by technical aids.

Causality is not unidirectional: The theory distinguishes various kinds of relation between the nodes of a network […]. The interaction between agents or actants is called translation , a concept which ANT borrows from Michel Serres, as Barry Intermediaries do not affect the forces and meanings they are to transfer but mediators can modify them Latour, Thus, the identity of actants is dependent on their roles as mediator or intermediary, which can also change into each other. Most theories are developed by theorists through the evaluation of previous theories and approaches.

Bourdieusian approaches tend to reduce the agent to the translator, and only consider agency from the individualistic perspective Buzelin Starting from a general assumption of the existence of distinctions between Western and Eastern identities, we conducted an identity survey of Iranian and Italian undergraduate trainee translators, to test our hypotheses and to see to what extent the findings would fall within Bourdieu and ANT theories. Additionally, the correlation between personal, social and professional identities among students was briefly examined.

A total of trainee translators participated in our survey: The students were from four Iranian and four Italian universities: The age and gender distribution of the two groups of students are given in Tables 1 and 2 below. AIQ-IV is a questionnaire that measures identity orientation in the four aspects of personal, relational, social and collective identities. In the original AIQ-IV questionnaire, there are 10 special items that are not scored on scales, two of which were included in our modified questionnaire. The research population was provided with the online questionnaire with an extended time period within which to respond and the responses were recorded both separately for each respondent and in a summary of all responses.

To help our analysis, the responses of Iranian and Italian students were recorded separately. Then, the total mean scores were compared and interpreted. Additionally, based on the total scores of the responses to each item, items that showed marked distinctions among the two groups of students were singled out as potential indicators of a number of meaningful and enlightening contrasts.

Comparing the mean values for all items, the items whose mean scores showed a certain variation were identified and marked for this purpose. The procedure was as follows: The resultant criterion values were. Finally, a microanalysis of identity scores based on three age groups of 19 or younger, male , and years old was carried out in order to find out more about the correlation of the identity aspects. Figure 1 compares Iranian and Italian undergraduate translator trainees in three aspects of their identities.

A Comparison of trainee translators' three identity aspects based on mean Likert scale values. As Figure 1 shows, the Iranian and Italian students surveyed in this study, show a contrast in terms of their personal and social identities where the former tend to have a stronger social identity and the latter a more marked sense of personal identity.

This implies that Italian students are more inclined towards individualism and self-dependence while Iranian students prefer interdependence; a difference that may reflect overall differences between Iranian and Italian, or Eastern and Western, societies. As for the correlation between personal and social identities with professional identity, no meaningful correlation was observed, indicating that either there are more factors that have to be taken into account or some complementary data is required.

We stated above that a special analysis was carried out of those items which produced significantly different based on the overall scores between Iranians and Italians. The following items were selected for further interpretation in each aspect of identity. My personal values and moral standards Item 7: Places where I live or where I was raised.

A comparison of personal identity marked items using mean Liker scale values. The Iranian students' score was significantly higher than their Italian counterparts in Item 1 but lower in Item 7, which might indicate that although Iranian students display a somewhat more social and less personal identity orientation, they might care more their values and morality issues.

On the other hand Italian students felt more intensely and emotionally about their living environments. A comparison of social identity marked items using mean Likert scale values. The results shown in Figure 3 imply that Italians are less concerned about their social popularity.

Popularity, as social capital, is a way to earn symbolic capital, which in turn can be arguably converted into other types of capital, particularly cultural capital. There were two items identified as marked with respect to professional identity, which are listed below:. Being considered a reliable and organized co-worker Item My future job despite its difficulties and low income. A comparison of professional identity marked items using mean Likert scale values. Although Italian students showed a higher propensity for individual work, they seem to value professional qualities when working with other people to a higher extent, which is indicated in Item 23; they consider it more important to be valuable co-workers through being reliable and organized.

Being reliable is a highly interpersonal attribute while being organized tends to be a personal characteristic yet with palpable outcomes for the people around us. Furthermore, in reference to Item 24, Italian students seemed to consider their future job much more important than Iranian students, a result which could imply two things: Overall, in the majority of the professional identity items, the Italian students demonstrated a stronger orientation, which may indicate that they generally have a better image of their field-related abilities and prospects for developing their careers in translation.

As a final step in this survey, we explored the correlation between personal and social identity aspects on the one hand with professional identity on the other. To this end, three age groups of trainee translators were compared in terms of their mean identity scores. Figure 5 and Figure 6 display the findings, indicating a chiefly positive correlation between the three identity aspects in the age groups analyzed — except for Italian students of 19 years or younger.

Another finding was that because the comparison of the mean scores of personal and social identities in these three age groups did not differ significantly across the two national groups, we can conclude that the excluded age group, female students aged , had a significant influence on the overall identity variation between Iranian and Italian students. The different items of the questionnaire, as well as the identity aspects it addressed, were related to the concepts discussed in the sociological theories.

The results of our empirical analysis point to a stronger social identity and habitus for Iranian students and a stronger personal and professional identity orientation and habitus on the part of the Italian students; a result which suggests that social activities in translator training may be particularly suitable in an Iranian context, while personal activities maybe more suitable when training translators in an Italian context. In addition, we found a predominantly positive correlation between personal and social identities with professional identity among the age groups we decided to study for the purpose of correlation analysis.

With reference to our research questions, we are now in a position to draw some conclusions: An implication of this study in translator training might be that once we understand that different societies have different conceptions of identity as well as various identities and identity construction patterns — for example, the general distinction between individualistic Western and the social Eastern identity — then our training priorities will differ, with implications for our translation curricula, pedagogies and teaching methods.

Additionally, the types of power distribution observed in the two theories have clear implications for the description of educational practices, including translator training. Introducing the two sociologies into the classroom allows learners to experience different identity constructions, which is recommended today. We would like to extend our deep gratitude to Prof. Marcello Soffritti and Prof. Christopher Rundle for their invaluable help with the project this study was part of.

We would also like to thank Prof. Silvia Bernardini for her constructive comments on a draft of this manuscript. Our heartfelt thanks also go to all the Italian and Iranian colleagues who helped with the distribution of our survey as well as the survey participants. These items describe different aspects of identity.

Please read each item carefully and consider how it applies to you. The full scale is:.

Not important to my sense of who I am 1 2 3 4 5 Extremely important to my sense of who I am. Journal of International Studies Bourdieu, Pierre Outline of a theory of practice , trans. Nice, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Bourdieu, Pierre In other words: Essays towards a reflexive sociology , trans. Measurement Instrument Database for the Social Science, www. Grenfell, Michael ed Pierre Bourdieu: Empowerment from Theory to Practice , Manchester, St.

Latour, Bruno Reassembling the social: Bartrina eds , Oxon, Routledge: Heine, Toshio Yamagishi, and Tatsuya Kameda eds. Snel Trampus, Rita D. After completing his MA in Translation Studies at Shahid Beheshti University, he started his translator training career in and has ever since taught undergraduate translation courses mainly at Arak University, where he got his BA in English Translation in He attended the University of Bologna once as a PhD student in , and another time as a doctoral visiting student in Starting from the definitions of culture, law, technology as well as legal and technical culture respectively, the aim of this paper is to point out the different degrees of cultural specificity in law and technology and in legal and technical language and texts.

The paper will also show to what extend the differences within the various dimensions of cultural specificity lead to differences in methods and procedures of translation.

Translating Echoes

Ausgehend von den Definitionen von Kultur, Recht und Technik einerseits sowie von Rechts- und Technikkultur andererseits wird in diesem Beitrag der unterschiedliche Grad von Kulturspezifik in Recht und Technik und in ihren sprachlich-textuellen Manifestationen herausgearbeitet. Kulturspezifik, Rechtssprache, technische Sprache, cultural specificity, legal language, technical language. Ziel des Beitrags ist es zum einen, den unterschiedlichen Grad der Kulturspezifik in Recht und Technik und ihren sprachlich-textuellen Manifestationen herauszuarbeiten. Rechtliche Regeln werden, wie von Marschelke Nutzung einerseits bestimmte Voraussetzungen mitbringen muss, dessen Erfordernissen aber andererseits auch bei der Gestaltung der Technik Rechnung zu tragen ist.

Recht und die damit verbundene Kultur sind m. Bei qualitativer Betrachtung stellt sich dann heraus, dass Technikkultur im Korpus nur mit den Termini Stiftung und Verein verbunden ist. Welche kulturspezifischen Unterschiede bestehen zwischen Recht und Technik auf der sprachlichen und der textuellen Ebene?

Welche Unterschiede zwischen Recht und Technik wirken sich in besonderer Weise auf die kulturspezifischen Unterschiede aus? Rechtssprache ist in erster Linie eine Institutionensprache Busse Diese erfordert eine doppelte rechtlich-sprachliche Abstraktion. Civil Law - vs. Nur in mehrsprachigen nationalen Rechtsordnungen Beisp.: Schweizer Recht und in supranationalen Rechtsordnungen Beisp.: In der Technik dagegen sind es tendenziell ein und dieselben Begriffe, die durch unterschiedliche Benennungen zum Ausdruck gebracht werden.

Bei der Entwicklung der technischen Terminologien gibt es jedoch, wie von Arntz Dennoch gibt es auch in der Technik Bereiche, in denen die Terminologie nicht systematisch genormt ist, so die Kfz-Technik Arntz Definitionen sind dabei nicht nur ein Recht-, sondern auch ein Technik-Thema, was anhand der nationalen und internationalen Normung sichtbar wird z. Auch gibt es zahlreiche Terminologieportale mit genormter Technik-Terminologie z. Im Recht ist es, v. So gibt es beispielsweise von den das Ermittlungs- und das Zwischenverfahren des italienischen Strafprozesses kennzeichnenden neun Textsorten nur drei, die eine Entsprechung in den vergleichbaren Abschnitten des deutschen Strafprozesses haben:.

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Gliederungskonventionen in deutschen und italienischen Gesetzestexten. Schweizer Recht oder supranationalen Rechtsordnung Beisp.: Eine wichtige Rolle spielen in diesem Zusammenhang Definitionen vgl. Diese sind allerdings einerseits nicht zu jedem Terminus oder Begriff vorhanden. Dies ist, wie von Reinart Diese kann in der Technik auch die Inhaltsbestandteile bzw. Apply the parking brake firmly. Shift the automatic transaxle to Park or manual transaxle to Neutral. Da Ausgangs- und Zielkultur hier allerdings zusammenfallen, kann allenfalls von einer Anpassung an Sprachtraditionen die Rede sein.

Die sich hier manifestierenden Besonderheiten der Rechtssprache als Fachsprache vgl. Der Beitrag basiert auf einem Vortrag, den ich dort am Ein internationales Handbuch zur Fachsprachenforschung und Terminologiewissenschaft , 2. Hoffmann, Lothar Kommunikationsmittel Fachsprache. Le-Hong, Kai und Peter A. Traduction de textes juridiques: Patti, Salvatore a cura di Codice Civile Italiano. Perspectives for the New Millenium. Akten des Symposiums Mannheim, 3.

Tilch, Horst und Frank Arloth Hrsg. Bilder und audiovisuelle Materialien in der Technik generell eine wichtige Rolle spielen Arntz Her other research areas include legal language, notably notarial language, didactics of specialised translation, terminography and lexicography. Eva Wiesmann also works als a freelance legal translator and lexicographer. Political opinion articles as an ideologically-loaded type of political discourse are largely produced to serve the society to which they belong. When translated, they could be manipulated to meet the socio-political needs of the target society.

Translation Studies scholars have adopted a variety of critical approaches and methodologies to account for such manipulations, inspired by the principles of Critical Discourse Analysis CDA and under the critical translation movement. To achieve this objective, a collection of 31 English opinion articles, along with their corresponding Persian translations, are analyzed.

At the textual level, however, some modifications are suggested. Critical Discourse Analysis, CDA, ideological square, manipulation, news translation, political discourse, opinion articles. Regardless of their methodology, all the scholars have unanimously agreed that the political context in which the target text TT is produced leads the trans-editor s [1] to manipulate the TT. Manipulation is a term originally concerned with literary translation and was first used by the scholars of the Manipulation School e.

Some scholars consider it as translation acts by means of which linguistic and cultural barriers are transcended and communication is facilitated e. Therefore, manipulation has also been considered a filter through which a specific representation of ST is promoted e. The current study considers manipulation from the latter perspective. The question is, which analytical framework can serve to investigate manipulation in translation from this perspective? First, the appropriateness of the framework will be argued.

Then, we will show how the framework links with Translation Studies and serves as a model for investigating manipulation in political discourse translation through the analysis of 31 Persian translations of English opinion articles. Since the ideological turn in Translation Studies, ideological and political factors have drawn the attention of translation scholars to the study of translation context. That is, CDA and TS share the idea that textual features should not be interpreted without considering the ideological context of text production and reception. Ietcu-Fairclough points out that translators work under certain socio-political conventions and restrictions which serve the wider values and ideologies of power holders in society.

Thus, the strategies employed by translators are aimed at the production of a text in line with set values. This is even more significant when it comes to political discourse translation, in general, and opinion articles, in particular. Political opinion articles, as opposed to hard news articles, are believed to be significantly loaded with ideologies Bell ; van Dijk As van Dijk That is, they are consistent with the beliefs and values of the dominant socio-political frameworks of the institutions themselves and the wider society to which they belong Hodge and Kress, Likewise, Vuorinen and Darwish maintain that translation in news agencies is influenced by institutional policies and ideologies to justify and control actions and their outcomes.

Therefore, translators are not the only people who decide on the translation; their work is edited by others such as senior translators, editors and the chief editor Hursti ; Bielsa Over the past few years, translation scholars have attempted to apply CDA in their studies to look at the influence of such conditions on news translation e. It should be noted that these studies are flawed for two reasons. Second, others are case studies which analyse a single article e.

Therefore, there is a need for a study with a broader set of data which goes beyond mere lexical analysis. The portrayal of the conflicts between Iran and the Western world have also been among the points of interest in investigating the influence of ideology on the news language. They argue that the translation strategies used are realized through the purposeful application of linguistic expressions both at lexical and grammatical level or non-linguistic elements such as images, photos, and graphic drawings. Sanatifar and Jalalian Daghigh , investigate, from a socionarrative perspective, how the Iranian media, through translation, directed the public perception of the social and political realities about its nuclear program through reframing as it was already framed in the Western media.

Unlike Khanjan et al. Other studies have compared Western news texts in English with Iranian-Persian texts covering the same topic. The results of their study show that the British media delegitimized the Iranian nuclear program, whereas the Iranian media portrayed it positively. Their study highlights a few points. First, they have gone beyond mere analysis of lexical choices by taking transitivity procedures, namely nominalization, and passivization, into account.

Second, by looking at the domestic media, which support government policies, and by comparing it with the Western media, they shed light on socio-political factors, which based on CDA, explain different uses of language by the media. Nevertheless, without denying the merit of these studies, it is noticeable that by merely looking at parallel texts produced in two different contexts, it is not possible to uncover manipulations carried out by news trans-editors. At the macro level is the society which is concerned with power relationships at the level of local interlocutors and global societal structures.

In his approach, social power is understood as a means of controlling the mind and action of groups and people. At the micro level is discourse, which refers to various discourse structures language encapsulating ideologies. Van Dijk points out that the meaning of the text is embedded in the discourse by language producers, and as such, it exists and is represented in their minds.

He characterizes it as a polarization of Us and Them through which the positive and negative features of in-group Us and out-group Them are de emphasized by applying 24 discourse structures. That is, the polarization between Us and Them is manifested via all linguistic dimensions of a text, which are interpreted as one of the following overall strategies:. Besides the 24 discourse structures identified by van Dijk , ideology may be represented in the text via syntactic features of language as well.

Since van Dijk has not included these features in his framework, the linguistic toolkits which are set forth by Hodge and Kress , and Fowler and Fairclough , i. In the following, a background of Iranian media policies and what forms the ideological Us and Them in the country is provided. In , with the Islamic revolution in Iran, a referendum was held and the Islamic Republic of Iran as the socio-political system of the country was officially recognized.

Accordingly, in the same year, a new constitution was ratified to adjust the rules and norms to the newly-established system. In addition, having the support of the European powers, specifically the UK, the USA has attempted to stop the country from being a nuclear power in the region Hastedt The foreign policy of Iran is also reflected in its constitution.

On the one hand, Article 56 of Chapter 8 of the Iranian constitution categorizes a number of countries, mainly the U. A and Israel, as hostile governments. These points have also been stressed in Iranian media law. Chapter 4 of the law bans several cases, among which are those that noticeably. Chapter 2 of the law states the missions of the media. Among the missions described in this chapter are those that. The data collection began by looking at the target text published on the Iranian news website Diplomacy-e-Irani Iranian Diplomacy.

A total of 31 Persian news opinion articles, which were all translated from English into Persian, were obtained from the archive of the news website within a period of 3 months, dated from April 1, , to June 30, In fact, more and more ideologically-loaded articles were then being published. Mic, Executive Magazine, and The Atlantic.

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After identifying the ideological significance of the source texts see Figure 2 , through comparing the source ST and target text TT , the ideological mismatches are described, categorized and evaluated. Analysis of the source text per se suggests that the ST representations can be categorized into four major patterns as follows:. In the following section, the results obtained from comparing the ST and the TT are presented. The given examples reflect the manipulation patterns in Persian translation of the opinion articles which are based on various procedures. Since the inclusion of all procedures falls beyond the scope of the study, the complete list of the procedures is separately provided in Appendix A Jalalian The best means of disarming Iran is to insist on a simple and basic redline […] Takeyh, Comparison of the ST and the TT shows some mismatches, which could be explained in terms of ideological manipulations.

In fact, by categorizing a particular group who favor the Islamic Republic the political regime , the ST author refers to a minority who supports the nuclear program, but this is generalized to Iranians, as a case of creating populism in the TT. This is a change of perspective which not only filters a negative depiction of Iran, but also, may represent the West negatively; thus, a target reader may interpret this as stopping a program which could be the right of a nation.

Therefore, in all the cases discussed above, there is an attempt by the trans-editor s to block the negative representations of the in-group US in the TT. The procedures of blocking are listed and explained in Appendix A. It would have to agree to completely open all Iranian nuclear facilities to regular inspections by the IAEA which has thus far refused to do so Purzycki, First Iran would give permission to the inspectors to enter all its nuclear sites. Some information may remain implicit, as it may be shared knowledge with the recipients and inferred from context.

However, there are other reasons for implicitation. For example, for cultural purposes such as politeness, an unacceptable expression might become implicit. In addition, political motivations may lead an author to leave an expression implicit van Dijk, While negative features of an in-group may remain implicit or mitigated through euphemism, the negative features of an out-group may be explicated van Dijk, However, this is omitted in the TT. As such, implicitation is used to demote the negative representation of the in-group in the TT. At the last round of talks, in February in Kazakhstan, the United States and five otherworld powers offered Tehran modest concessions, including softening limits on trade using gold and other precious metals, and easing some restrictions on petrochemicalexports, if the Iranians agreed to halt production of medium-enriched uranium.

The Iranians did not accept the offer Ritcher Disclaimer is a combination of positive self-representation and negative other-representation and saves face by emphasizing the positive features of an in-group and representing an out-group negatively by focusing on their negative features.

In the above example, both positive representations of the out-group and negative representation of the in-group are expressed via disclaimer. In fact, the ST depicts the out-group positively by stating that a good offer from the United States is turned down by the in-group. However, it is blocked from entering the TT by complete omission. In fact, the negative representation of the in-group, as well as the positive representation of the out-group are both manipulated in the TT.

Groups and individuals might be addressed by neutral terms. Thus, a polarized term used to refer to an in-group positively and an out-group negatively is a marker of the ideology of a group towards its in-groups and out-groups van Dijk, In the above example, the author quotes what Ashton, the leader of the Western powers in negotiations, states on the proposal which has been given by the West. As can be seen in the ST, this part of the text is a positive representation of the West and their proposal.

This reveals that the trans-editors consider themselves to be members of the target society. As such, the positive representation of the Westerners is demoted by omitting some information. Based on my personal experience, Rowhani is a polite and open character Fischer Based on my personal experience, Rowhani is a polite man with open character. In discourse, an actor can be described as a manifestation of a group ideology towards what they consider as in-group and out-group. Comparison of the ST and the TT shows no ideological manipulation. As a result, the positive representation of the in-group is preserved in the TT.

Unlike outgoing president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad, he surrounds himself with very skilful and experienced diplomats Fischer His ongoing balanced policies in past posts indicate that he is a sophisticated person. These translations are both in line with the meaning of the ST words. However, the addition of some positive representation in the TT, which does not exist in the ST, intensifies the already positive representation of Rowhani in the ST. Like the previous examples, this example represents the way DPR is manipulated.

By applying certain procedures, the ST positive representation of the in-group is promoted in the TT. The procedures of promotion are explained in Appendix A. The discourse of counterfactuals warns about something that would happen as the result of the problem created by another group. Comparison of the ST and the TT suggests that the negative representation of the out-group is transferred from the ST to the TT without any manipulation.

Therefore, the negative representation of the out-group is preserved in the TT. In the above example, the author blames Obama for sending arms to Syria for the problem it may cause in the path toward a probable deal between Iran and the USA. However, it is worth mentioning the few ideological manipulations. That is, the reader may imagine that the USA has sent heavy arms rather than small arms. As such, the negative representation of Obama and his policies are promoted in the TT. As stated earlier, the ST analysis suggests four patterns of representation. In total, 82 percent of the ST representations are in conflict with the cases which are stipulated in the Iranian media law.

As a result, it is far from expectation that the translators simply transfer the undesired representations to the TT intact. Table 2 summarizes the ST representations as manipulated in the TT. As the table displays, the undesired representations have been treated differently from the desired representations. The four identified strategies of manipulation and their percentages in translations. The first category is the undesired negative representation of the in-group.

The second category is an undesirable positive representation of the out-group. The third category is a desirable negative representation of the out-group. The last category is a desirable positive representation of the in-group. As the table reveals, while preserving does not exist in the first two groups, it is dominantly used in the last two groups DNR and DPR. This suggests that the trans-editors have preserved the positive representations of the in-groups and negative representations of the out-groups.

One may argue that preserving may not be a manipulative pattern. However, by comparing its use among the four categories of the ST representations, it can be concluded that preserving has been applied deliberately to highlight the desired representations. As stated earlier, translation is an act of recontextualization. When a text is recontextualized, it is influenced by the contextual factors of the target society. Even though some transformations are unavoidable in the process of translation due to linguistic and cultural factors, the ones which are evident in this study cannot be interpreted as a result of constraints imposed by such related aspects.

In fact, the data analysis suggests that the political discourse translators working at Iranian Diplomacy seem to have been restricted, among many, by the ideological factors governing the institution they work for. The institution per se is part of the society in which certain values are shared. The state ideology of the Iranian government is a good example of such conditions. The Islamic revolution has resulted in forming a polarized categorization which has been reflected in both the constitution and the media law.

This takes place through text producers who shape the discourse to meet the expectations of the institution they work for. In fact, text producers, being aware of the commission they have and guided by the factors underlying ideological square, produce a text which reflects the ideology of the powerholders through their discursive practices. Analysis of the data shows that the ST consists of representations which conflict with the stance of the Iranian government toward the in-group Us and the out group Them. Through the manipulative procedures, the undesired and desired representations are formed into representations which recreate a new discourse for the target text audience.

The purpose of this appears to ensure that the target text is in accordance with the values and ideology of the target society. The proposed CDA-based model for the analysis of manipulation in political discourse translation. The model which is developed through modifications to the originally monolingual CDA of van Dijk tends to focus on the ideological square in the context of the target society.

The ideology of the target society power holders, which has roots in their stance toward the conflicts with foreign countries, is reflected in the TT discourse through manipulation strategies. It appears that the square can accommodate manipulation in the bilingual context of political discourse translation. However, applying this to translation needs some modification.

As such, it is concluded that the trans-editors tend to manipulate the ST representations based on Figure 3 illustration. Illustration of the four identified strategies to investigate manipulation in political discourse translation. As the figure reveals, trans-editors tend to positively represent their own group Us and negatively represent the other group Them. The strategies, except for preserving, are implemented through applying some manipulative procedures which are explained in Appendix A.

The linguistic toolkits provided by van Dijk and the ones provided and shared among other CDA models, including Fairclough, Hodge and Kress, and Fowler, seem to be not enough in explaining all the manipulation procedures, most probably due to their monolingual nature of analysis. Therefore, by taking a descriptive-explanatory approach, the study has attempted to investigate the ones which are not explained by CDA see Appendix A.

The proposed model conceptualizes the important topic of manipulation in mediation of ideology as performed by political discourse translators. By being aware of the proposed model, translation critiques would be better able to make informed criticism of manipulation in translation. It would also help translation teachers and material developers to better explain and illustrate manipulations to their translator trainees, specifically in courses which deal with journalistic and political text translation.

In addition, it facilitates the path of future researchers as it provides them with an analytical framework to uncover the manipulated discourses in translation. The current study investigated manipulation in translation by focusing on 31 opinion articles translated form English to Persian. Further studies on other genres of political discourse in other societies with different language pairs could be enlightening in developing the proposed model. To represent an undesired representation of ST from a different perspective in TT so that the trace of the ST representation is removed. To replace an undesired negative representation of ST with an item in TT which nullifies the representation.

To nullify an undesired negative representation of ST with a vague expression in TT, by not providing the details of the ST representation in TT, which leads to nullifying the representation. To minimize an undesired negative representation of ST by attributing the interests of a person or a specific group high ranking officials to many people.

To replace an undesired negative representation of ST with a positively-loaded item in TT so as to censor the representation. To partially remove an undesired representation of ST in TT so that the degree of representation is minimized. To lower the loading of an undesired representation of ST in TT by nominalizing, by which the details of subject and object are removed. To particularize an undesired negative representation of ST in TT as opposed to the generality of a ST representation so as to lower the load of negativity. To omit the subject of an undesired negative representation of ST in TT as opposed to an active structure so as to remove the responsibility of the actor s.

To intensify a desired negative representation of ST by either replacing it with a more negatively-loaded item or adding an extra negatively-loaded item.

About the author(s)

Fairclough, Norman Critical Discourse Analysis: Fowler, Roger Language in the News: Hastedt, Glenn American Foreign Policy: Hermans, Theo The Manipulation of Literature: Hodge, Robert and Gunther Kress. Studies in Intercultural Communication 13, no. Mearsheimer, John and Stephen M. International Journal on Translation Studies 24, no. Studia Translatologica, Ser B, no. He has a number of publications and has presented in several international conferences. The author has published numerous articles in specialized journals and has presented widely in international conferences.

His main research interests are: She is the author and co-author of a number of journal papers and has presented in several international conferences. Her main research areas are Translation, journalism, News discourse and editing. This study examines the effect of following a translation training programme at postgraduate level on the way trainee translators justify the strategies applied to solve translation problems, in particular, the positions they adopt while discussing their translation decisions.

The Translation Studies programme at the University of Birmingham is used as a case study. The trainee translators completed a translation task which involved commenting on translation problems and translation strategies according to a pre-prepared form while translating a text. This task, preceded by a questionnaire, was repeated at three stages throughout the academic year This paper reports on a part of the findings resulting from the data analysis. It suggests that trainee translators become more assertive in the justification of their solutions to translation problems as a consequence of following a translation training programme.

This study also indicates that the students seem to be less willing to engage with alternative viewpoints by the end of the programme. Rico argues that, at European universities,. In his view, this was due to the new development in translation training programmes after the Bologna process which started in and aimed at establishing a common system of learning and teaching in universities across Europe and which is based on student-centred pedagogical principles and student-teacher interaction Rico Since translator training at university level is still considered a recent phenomenon and insufficiently researched in Translation Studies Pym This article starts with providing a description of the general design of the study and the research methods employed.

This is followed by an overview of the procedures used to analyse the data. The findings of the study are then presented. Although this may raise concerns about a possible bias, being familiar with the programme can also be seen as an advantage when it comes to interpreting the results of the study. Even though it is difficult to generalize on the basis of one case study, hopefully this research offers data which will be of interest to the wider translation training community.

Universities in the UK offer different types of degrees in Translation Studies at different levels: African Voices is a site on a Rochester Institute of Technology server. AfricArt In French and English. For some of them, experts are welcome to give me the missing information. On most other pieces I can provide interesting informations myself. I am ready to accept any exchange offers. Net Offers for sale stone scultpure from Zimbabwe. Profiles of each artists, photographs of works for sale. Does not provide a mailing address but the web site is registered to Mark Valli, Carlsbad, California.

AfricaServer In English and Dutch. An artistically oriented directory to web sites and information on Africa. Its Africans in Holland is a directory to "locate African expertise and African entrepreneurs in the Netherlands. Museums in The Netherlands and in Belgium Directory of museums which have a permanent Africa collection or organize exhibitions on Africa. Africraft "Africraft embraces emerging art forms, traditional and comtemporary fusion of craft and sculpture or it could move into the realm of interior designs. Africultures - Expositions Features many African sculptors, painters, street artists, etc.

The site for the Paris journal, Africultures , published by L'Harmattan. All pieces of high quality from allover black africa. Afrikanischen Kunst Wende In German. Sells sculpture, terracotta, books. Holds auctions on EBay Germany. Maintained by Brigitte und Hans Wende. Afrique en Creations " Afro Decor Home and office decorating accessories, mudcloths, fabric, batik paintings, pillow covers, custom decorating services, etc.

Owned by Nel Hollie, based in Washington, D. Afromart Gift Enterprises Sells baskets, djembe drums, etc. Based in Long Beach, California. Agence photographique de la Reunion des musees nationaux In French and English. Searchable database of "more than , colour transparencies and , black-and-white negatives relating to works of art in France's national museums: Fees are determined by intended use.

Akan Cultural Symbols Project Project "to utilize the pictograms and ideograms encoded in the arts of the Akan to decode some aspects of the history, beliefs, social organizations, social relations, and other ideas of the Akan of Ghana. The project is directed by Dr. Kojo Arthur with Dr. Robert Rowe, Art Dept. American Museum of Natural History.

By the time they sailed home five and one-half years later, they had collected tons of precious zoological and anthropological specimens Use the Search to see a preview. For example, searching on ibeji retrieves six photographs with date if known and museum owner. Request forms for reproduction rights are provided as is a form for comments on the work. Ananse Village Supports "small scale production by talented craftspeople.

A portion of our profits helps provide medical care and educational opportunities to the communities we work with. Sells beads, fantasy carved coffins, South African dolls, baskets, books, musical instruments, clothing, masks originating from Ghana, South Africa, other countries. Owners are Paajoe and Rebecca Amissah-Aidoo. Hosted by the web page of the Embassy of Angola, Washington, D. A virtual exhibition in cooperation with Nucleo de Arte, an artists' collective in Maputo, Mozambique. Members made works of art out of AK 47 machine guns, landmines, and hand weapons. Has short biographies on the 14 artists.

The exhibition was part of a "successful campaign to convince civilians to hand in arms in exchange for agricultural tools and to demine the countryside. The Countries Database provides basic facts. A Types of Art database describes the art of each ethnic group and basic facts about the group. Has essays by scholars. The Media section includes photographs, videos, and audio. Includes the Stanley Collection of African Art which contains over objects. Art as a Verb in Africa: On mask performances of the Bwa people in the village of Boni, in central Burkina Faso. Filmed at the annual mask festival.

Art for Humanity Promotes human rights through the production of Fine Art print portfolios, exhibitions, billboards and research projects which advocate various human rights issues in South Africa, across Africa and internationally. Art Institute, Chicago - African Art https: Info "the website of ComMattersKenya Limited, a Nairobi-based arts, culture, communications and media firm Articles on copyright in Kenya , homosexuality, festivals, etc.

The images were documented by Elisabeth Deliry-Antheaume from Has a Bibliography includes citations to A. Les murs peints d'Afrique du Sud , in French 5 p. Has a gallery of paintings by Abiye Melaku depicting life and landscapes of Ethiopia. African Art Paintings, wall plaques, jewelry, hats. The owner is Franchesca Dove-Aryeh. Based in Accra, Ghana and the U.

Artnet Africa Specializes in selling Shona sculpture. Site of Matthew Owen, London. Find materials by grade level. Has a database of African art images, save and annotate images, then retrieve them when you return to the web site. Share your image collection with others. Awards and past recipients, etc. The organization exists to facilitate communication among scholars, teachers, artists, museum specialists and all others interested in the arts of Africa and the African Diaspora. Lesson plans, curriculum ideas for beginner, intermediate and advanced students, a timeline, an image gallery and diagrams.

For K and university teachers. Themes are African-American also some African and Caribbean. Art news, exhibitions, features on artists, links to web sites, etc. ArtTrak - Tribal Art Has a, members only, art auction database. Maintained by John Buxton in Dallas, Texas. Works in collaboration with the Ghana Museums and Monuments Board. Based in Melksham Wiltshire, U. The artist is based in Kampala. Axis Gallery The Manhattan gallery is the only U.

Has online exhibitions such as " Saints, Spirits, and Strangers: Baobab Project - Harvard University An investigation into why certain cultures, places, and periods encouraged creativity and innovation in the arts, directed by Suzanne Preston Blier, Dept. The Project Manager is Michael Roy. Has large graphics; it's best to access this when you have a fast connection. The web site is a glimpse of the project which includes narratives case studies , an image and ethnographic database, and a geographic information system. The case studies are: Asante political expansion, Batimalliba two-story architecture, Islam and indigenous African cultures, Shawabtis and Nubia, Yoruba masking traditions, and Ife, an ancient Yoruba city state.

Short stories, poetry, art from the Diaspora and Africa. Descriptions of each piece, zoom in, send a photograph as an e-card. African musical instruments collection. Bradshaw Foundation - Save the Giraffe Project to record over rock engravings including creation of a mould of rock art giraffes in the Tenere desert and the Air Mountains of Niger. Photographs of the giraffes, the Tuaregs, a report by Jean Clottes. One can purchase a limited edition cast of the two giraffes. Bridge for Africa "a federal c 3 non-profit organization dedicated to promoting self-sufficiency and the dignity of work in rural Africa.

We partner with African artisan groups to design, create, and market unique handmade African items. The artisans are paid a living wage for their work, while additional proceeds and results from our fundraising efforts are reinvested in community development, training, and job creation in the region. The database comprises selections from the Museum's collections.

One painting is based on the book about Queen Lueji by the Angolan writer Pepetela. Includes scrapbook and decorated envelopes. Masks and Statues "Created by the Laboratoire d'? Cameroun Plus In French. Extensive directory on all areas of life in Cameroun. Facts, recipes , tourism, arts and culture, newspapers , universities, etc. Her work draws on the masquerades of the Kalabari and Yoruba. Includes a Quicktime movie clip for which you'll need a Quicktime viewer. Camp, Sokari Douglas - A Tribute to Her Father "Employing modern sculptural techniques, she creates large, semi-abstract figurative works that are inspired by the sounds, movements and colors of Kalabari masquerades, funerals, plays, regattas and festivals.

Catherine, Norman "a selection from the Pelmama Permanent Art Collection of important airbrush and other works by Norman Catherine which could be made available to interested institutions on long-term loan or as a part donation - works in all - presented in chronological order.

Based in Lagos, Nigeria. Chambers, a photographer, was a U. Peace Corps Volunteer in Zimbabwe, He worked with the National Gallery art of Zimbabwe , run photography workshops for school leavers , and worked on a program with street children. Postcolonial Literature site on Chambers: Based in The Hague, Netherlands. His collection was bought for the Museum in Includes a history of modern art in the Congo [DRC]. Portraits of Malien individuals and families. Resume and account by the photographer, based in Paris.

Conscience Africaine In French and English. Has artist biographies, images of their works, list of their exhibitions. Links to two exhibits - African Art Now: Also images of other exhibits: See also Artnet article. Works mainly from the early to mid s. Photographs of images and slides sets can be ordered.

History of the Foundation's African art collection. On the web site of the U. Crafts, baskets, greetings cards from Butare, Rwanda. Curated by Cornell art history faculty member, Salah M. Creative Africa Network "a virtual platform Cross Cultural Collaborative Inc. Artist biographies, selected works. Culturebase "online information source on contemporary international artists from all fields.

Find artists by name, region, country, genre design, film, music, performing arts, visual arts, etc. Artist profiles and their exhibitions. From the House of World Cultures and other European cultural institutions. D'Addis et d'ailleurs In French and English. Ethiopian paintings, jewelry, stoles, household linens, carvings, lamps, religious icons, Bible stands, Coptic crosses.

The owner is Nolwenn Brunel. Based in Paris, France. On 20th Century Ethiopian Art. Links to Ethiopian art sites, Brief history of art in Ethiopia by Esseye Medhin, chronology of contemporary Ethiopian art. Detroit Institute of Arts - African Art Attractive presentation of their African art collection - Benin kings, queen mothers, men portraying women, etc.

Images require a license for reproduction, for ex. Documenta In English and German. It takes place every five years, in the North-Hesse town of Kassel [Germany]. Background to Documenta12 from the Goethe Institut. Dodo Zimbabwe graphic and web designer. Has examples of his work. Site works only in Microsoft's browser. Etablissement Inter-Etats d'Enseignement Sup? Includes report of a trip to Mali to promote the school, issues of the student journal, Esquisse, courses, etc.

A directory of alumni includes their research topics. The participating countries are B? There are illustrations of Traditional Necklaces, Adornment of the head, Adornment of the chest, waist and lower body, Adornment of the limbs, Items worn by Izangoma specialists in traditional magic. Teach about Africa through its art work. Covers people, ceremony, daily life, death, communication the nsibidi script, the drums. Puzzles, games, worksheets, teacher resource site.

Also drums, kente cloth, jewelery, musical instruments, carvings, baskets, textiles, clothing, carved boxes, barber signs , "We work in partnership with artisans and artisan's cooperatives Espace Fagueye In French. Based in Seysses, France. An Eternity of Forest: Music of the Mbuti has inspired contemporary Western musicians.

Includes musical slide show. Ethnographic Arts Publications Supplies books, auction and exhibition catalogs, and serials on Africa plus other areas. New Museum - Black President: The Art and Legacy of Fela Anikulapo-Kuti, July 11 - September 28, "painting, drawing, sculpture, photography, mixed media and sound installation, video, film, computer animation, and music, 34 artists present and give tribute to the many sides of Fela Anikulapo-Kuti. The Museum is in New York city. A celebration of the art, music, literature, cinema, dance, theatre, architecture of Africa and the African diaspora.

Four Corners Site does not work without Java enabled. Sells fine basketry, beadwork, painted textiles, contemporary art, household crafts. Based in Orlando, Florida. Based in Decatur, GA. It is a non-profit, educational, open-membership organization that offers slide lectures and other programs to expand knowledge and public awareness of human expression in these traditional native arts.

For each artist has brief biographical information, a list of exhibitions, awards, examples of the artists' work. Based in Lisbon, Portugal. Galerie du Galion In French. Gallery in Montpellier, the south of France, owned by Emile Proust. Galerie Ezakwantu Central, Eastern and Southern African masks, stools, neckrests, weapons, household items, baskets, pipes. In some cases, provides previous ownership information. Contemporary art sculpture, telephone wire plates, woodcuts. Based in Franschhoek South Africa. Galerie Loango In French. Masks, sculpture from Angola, Congo Kinshasa and Brazzaville.

From a Stuttgart gallery. See the artists list. Galerie Toguna In French. Gallery Taos, New Mexico gallery with 19th and early 20th century African art. Gallery owned by Dr. Bernd Kleine-Gunk, a gynecologist who lived in Zimbabwe. Items range from 5 to 50 years old. Getty Research Institute Search their online catalog. Ghawaco International Showcase for contemporary Ghanaian artists Dr. Ablade Glover, Wisdom Kudowor a. Their works have been purchased by corporations, commissioned for public venues. Has artist biographies, sells original paintings and prints. Based in Ottawa, Canada.

Site of Italian artist Ghersi includes handweaving among the Ewe. He works with the Blakhud Research Center in Ghana. A search on Olusegun Obasanjo retrieved over images including cartoons and for ibeji twin figures retrieved c. Pages take a while to load. Results are pretty good though it's a puzzle as to why some images are retrieved.

Based in the U. Has a history of the Shona art movement. H-AfrArts A discussion forum, web site for those interested in the study of African expressive culture. A collaboration between the H-Net: Its web site includes past discussions, recent publications. Patricia Thompson, Art Librarian, provides the tables of contents of art journals. The site has an index to African Arts, Vols. To subscribe, send an e-mail message to: Site owned by Peter-Andreas Kamphausen. Features Tanzanian artist, George Lilanga. Every three months special exhibitions highlight one ethnic group or theme African stools, Togo art, etc.

It includes information about slides, photographs, objects and artifacts in the university's libraries, museums and archive. Items with a purple diamond have online images. Searching on Ibeji for example produces 26 listings some with images. Images are not limited to those only at Harvard. House of Stone Sells Shona stone sculpture, quality batiks , wire toys , to raise funds to help Zimbabwe children, particularly orphans. Masterpieces from the Jean Pigozzi Collection "Beginning in , Swiss entrepreneur and photographer Jean Pigozzi made an extraordinary commitment to assemble a broad collection of contemporary African art, Art eJournal of the African World Vol.

Several of his large sculptures are visable at different locations in Lusaka, the capital of Zambia. Indianapolis Museum of Art - Cycles. African Life Through Art Interactive online exhibit on the themes of African ancestors, youth, leadership, adulthood. Vignettes of a Yoruba woodcarver, painting by Twins Seven Seven and more.

Gallery of African art and culture which can be zoomed and rotated for more detail. A Teachers' Section "lists a number of disciplines in which national and state standards are addressed International Center of Photography. Museum - Snap Judgements: Selected images, artists' biographies.

Excerpts from the catalogue by Enwezor. Checklist of the exhibition. International Council of Museums - Handbook of Standards. Documenting African Collections Guide prepared by mainly African museum professionals for describing and organizing museum art and natural science collections. In English and French. Has images of the entries submitted including from South Africa.

Islamic Architecture Religious and non-religious structures residences, markets, street views , from 26 countries including Egypt, Mali, Morocco, Nigeria, South Africa, Tanzania, Tunisia. Includes masks, household objects, shrines, musical instruments. Based in New Orleans, Louisiana. Kentridge, William Use the artnet. Kibuuka, David David Kibuuka, from Uganda, "demonstrates his artistic genius in oils, watercolour, acrylic and pencil drawings. Kofa International Art Sells stone sculptors from Zimbabwe. The owner, Sharon Gordon is based in Oakland, California. Includes David Krut Publishing - the publication, distribution and sourcing of books and digital material on contemporary South African art.

Send virtual postcards by South African artists. Offices in Johannesburg and New York City. Landau and Deborah Kaspin. H-Africa's Africa Forum 6 http: His works can be bought on-line. Web site based in Amsterdam, the Netherlands. Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Collections Online Browse some works from the African Art collection - "body adornments, masks with bright paint and raffia, small figures of wood and ivory, bronzes, beaded crowns, and stools.

Also search , library records. Lualuali lives and works in Amsterdam. Their web site is found thru the home page of Pier Larson whose home page also includes a discography of 78 rpm Malagasy Records. Malangatana Valente Ngwenya In Portuguese. Site about Mozambique's master artist, sculptor, poet. Biography and examples of his work. See also Painting life and philosophy in Mozambique , a review of the book, Malangatana , by Barbara Murray.

Malawi Art and Craft Sells batiks, carved chiefs' chairs, household crafts. Based in Doncaster, Melbourne, Australia. Contact details are on their website.

Poppe Collection of African Knives "African knives reflect the great craftsmanship of Central African blacksmiths before close contact with the West. The first explorers and early colonists in central Africa brought back a large number of local weaponry,,," Many knives are from the former Belgian Congo.

You must register to see larger images of the knives. Knives were also used to indicate social rank. Manie Gallery In French and English. Traditional art from Africa, Asia, Americas. Masks, sculptures, bronzes, textiles, Bogolan cloth, Touareg jewelry, contemporary sculptures, ceramics from Algeria. The owner is Conchita Giraud. Based in Montreal, Canada. The Visual Arts of Lesotho: The Material Culture of Twins in West Africa "The treatment of twins in West Africa is particularly unusual, possibly due to the high twin rate in this area. In the Cameroonian Grassfields twins are generally regarded as gifts from God.

They are highly celebrated and respected. Maviyane-Davies, Chaz Zimbabwe design consultant, poster artist, filmmaker. The artist runs a design studio in Harare, the Maviyane-Project. Has a gallery of his work, biography, a video clip of his film. Mavuart - Original Paintings by Nigerian Artist, Jonathan Lessor "His style which is characterized by heavy [impasto] as well as the different knife techniques, which today marks his identity, Mbad African Bead Museum Builds and organizes "collection of beads, beadworks, textiles, sculptures and other culture relics Based in Detroit, Michigan.

The owner is Olayame Dabls. See also her MySpace page. Deductive observations about these objects allow possible conclusions to be drawn regarding: The suggestion is stressed that it is the responsibility of the conservator to remain informed about an object's nontangible attributes and to treat African objects with cultural dignity. Osman is also a physician at the Kent Medical Center, Washington state. Cybercafe and art gallery in Dakar. Biographies of artists and examples of their work. Pages may take a while to load.

Metropolitan Museum of Art. Arts of Africa, Oceania, and the Americas Has a searchable database, very fine photographs. The works of art range from refined Afro-Portuguese ivories of the fifteenth century to formally powerful Fang reliquary figures. Metropolitan Museum of Art - Art and Oracle Exhibition of "African artifacts created to communicate with ancestors, spirits, and gods in order to obtain insight into human quandaries.

Extensive commentary on figures illustrated. Detailed maps showing locations of the cultures. Metropolitan Museum of Art - Master Hand: Individuality and Creativity Among Yoruba Sculptors "The Yoruba live in Nigeria and the Republic of Benin and are responsible for one of Africa's oldest and most dynamic artistic traditions. Its origins are traced to the ancient city-state of Ile-Ife, famous for exquisitely refined and naturalistic sculptural forms in terracotta and stone created before A.

Maps, bibliographies, timeline for the continent. Explanations of features in the works depicted. Mia Mali Crafts from Mali - baskets, jewelry, placemats, bedspreads, wire toys, figures made from recycled cans, foot stools, handbags, scarves, leather boxes, bronze animals. Does not deal in museum quality antiques. Michigan State University Museum.

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