Meaning and function of discourse signals
Contents:
There are EFL classes scheduled during week days and also on Saturday mornings. Every session on Saturday morning lasts three hours.
Meaning and function of discourse signals
The class recorded was the first session after Christmas holidays and the students talked about what they had done during their holidays. Participants talked about the traditions to celebrate Christmas in their countries: Spain, Italy and Colombia. After that, they talked about "worstcase scenarios and ways to prepare for disasters" which is a topic developed in their textbooks as part of the initial program of the course.
This classroom activity combined reading with speaking practice; that is, with oral interaction. Two different instruments were used to gather the data. First, I designed a questionnaire in order to collect background information of the course and to create a profile of the students. This form, used once with the group of students under scrutiny, was filled in by the teacher and consisted of two main sections: This instrument was really important as it provided valuable information which contributed to a better understanding of the interaction that took place in the classroom.
Audiorecordings were also used. As the data were collected in an indoor setting, the type of recording equipment was selected accordingly. With the consent of the participants, a light, portable audiorecorder of professional quality was tested before the recording session and used to record the participants' oral interaction.
Once the recording session had been completed, a digital copy was made and kept for backup.
Then, an initial process of transliteration of the audiorecorded class began. Afterwards, a 25minute fragment of the session was taken as the main focus of attention in order to develop this paper. The fragment was chosen because it constituted the most representative and richest section in terms of oral interaction among the participants.
This selected fragment was transcribed using specific transcription conventions which were very useful in providing the maximum transmission of contextual information and to ensure accuracy. The audio recording was transcribed directly into a computer file using the Sound Scriber program created by Breck at the University of Michigan, which aides in the transcription of digitized sound files and has several userconfigurable features. Occasional speech errors made by participants were not corrected; instead, they were transcribed as they had actually occurred.
An instrument for the transcript was designed including information about the date, site, and key issues regarding the participants, context and the sample transcription. Bearing in mind the research questions posed to develop this smallscale study, I aimed at quantitatively and qualitatively relevant results. The quantitative side of the analysis was performed by the use of descriptive statistics. It consisted of simple statistical analyses such as lexical size and frequency counts in order to show the occurrences and distribution of discourse markers in the discourse.
Taking Brinton's inventory of 33 items that can be considered DMs, I developed the quantitative analyses using the latest version of a computerresearch tool called AntConc, a freeware multipurpose corpus analysis toolkit designed by Laurence Anthony at Waseda University. The qualitative analysis consisted of the identification and description of the pragmatic functions of discourse markers. Regarding the first research question posed to carry out this exploratory study, I first analyzed the general lexical size and frequency. As shown in Table 2a , the total number of words in the sample taken for the development of this paper of transcribed oral data is two thousand one hundred.
The most frequent word of this sample is the definite article the, with 93 occurrences accounting for 4. It was followed by the nominative pronoun I with 90 occurrences 4. The fourth most frequent word is the DM and with 74 occurrences 3. This information may be unsurprising. Words such as the, I, and and are highly frequent in spoken communication. However, a distinction between content and function words might be relevant. Thus, Table 2a shows the distribution of content words and function words in this sample of EFL classroom talk. A closer look at the data reveals that DMs occur times.
Concerning the occurrence and frequency of DMs, Brinton's inventory of 33 items was considered as a basis. Using the concordance lines provided by the AntConc computer program, I analyzed each one of the instances in which DMs occur. Since some items from Brinton's inventory may also serve other functions different from their use as discourse markers, it was relevant to distinguish DMs from those cases. I made a distinction between nondiscourse marker and marker functions based on the list of features given in Table 1. The following extracts from my data illustrate that a some items function as discourse markers and, therefore, were included as part of the analysis and b some cases in which the items were serving as nondiscourse marker functions were excluded:.
Excerpt 1 shows the use of well as a discourse marker: In line , the teacher asks S3 a question which is answered in line Here, well is used as a response marker by the student, thus, it was included in the analysis. In this example, well collocates with very and is an adverb. It is not fulfilling any discourse marker function.
Therefore, it was excluded. Excerpt 3 shows that so is used by the teacher to initiate a new stage in the classroom discourse and to get the attention of the students. So, here, is therefore working as an opening frame marker. In this case, so is qualifying the adjective cheap.
It was excluded because it was used as an adverb of degree or manner. The above excerpts 1 5 illustrate that the use of lexical items is dependent on the local context and sequence of talk in classroom interaction. Thus, these are two important factors to consider when making decisions on what to exclude or include as a discourse marker in the analysis.
Table 3a shows the occurrences and frequencies of DMs in this study. The most frequent DM and occurs 74 times. In addition, some other markers from Brinton's inventory did not occur after all, almost, anyway, basically, go "say", if, mind you, moreover, say, therefore, you see. Table 3b shows the occurrence and frequencies of these three DMs.
Yeah occurs 42 times and eh? In my data, I found combinations such as and then 7 occurrences , ok and 3 occurrences , oh yeah, oh really, mhm and, well but, well um, and well, ok well, yeah mhm, well now, yes I know, ok so, ah ok, ah yeah, like yeah and so ah. Summarizing, the occurrences and frequencies of thirty six discourse markers were analysed as shown in Tables 3a and 3b. The most frequent DM was and with 74 occurrences. Few or zero occurrences of about 16 markers were also accounted for.
Discourse markers were used differently by the participants in this study. In relation to the third and fourth research questions posed to develop this study, Table 4 shows two categories in which DMs were classified according to whether they were used by the nonnative teacher TT or the adult EFL students SS. Regarding the use of DMs by the teacher, this study shows that this nonnative teacher uses a great deal of DMs once, and some DMs are repeatedly used, as shown in Table 4. This may suggest that the nonnative teacher's role might not be as "dominant", in De Fina's words, and thus may allow a slightly more space for students to participate in classroom interaction.
However, differences in the quantity of DMs used by native and nonnative teachers and students in classroom interaction may be related to a variety of factors and methodological issues. In contrast, as explained in section 4. Although this activity was proposed and guided by the teacher, it was mainly studentcentered and pupils were free to participate, intervene and express themselves using the target language.
After having looked at the occurrences, frequencies and distribution of DMs, I decided the following section of this paper would address the last question related to the general functions of DMs in classroom interaction. In order to identify and describe their main functions, I analyzed each discourse marker in its context of use; that is, I considered both the local context and the sequence of talk in which they occurred during classroom interaction. The initial twenty two lines of the whole transcript are included in Table 5 in order to illustrate the qualitative analysis that was performed on the entire dataset.
As is shown in Table 5, a variety of DMs are present to aid the speakers in the construction of their discourse and meaningmaking during classroom interaction. The functions I identified are both textual and interpersonal. The textual functions of markers are more related to the construction of discourse coherence.
For instance, so, in line one is used by the teacher in order to initiate his discourse. So is also used by the teacher in cases 4 and 8 as a result marker and with the purpose of emphasizing and structuring his discourse coherently. In line seven, the teacher uses and then to signal continuity and to mark the temporal connection and sequential dependence on the discourse.
Student 1, in line 10, takes the turn and volunteers to interact by using the DM yeah. The teacher assigns the turn using the DM ok. S1 uses the filler um, in lines 12 and 20, as a delaying tactic to fill a momentary hesitation, to sustain discourse and to hold the floor. Most of the uses of the DM and in this extract are related to its textual function of showing continuity and adding new information cases 17, 21 and However, and, in case 25, is used by the student not only to mark continuity and thematic connection but also as a turn keeper showing that even though she has been interrupted, she still holds the floor.
The use of because in line 16, as a marker of cause, not only has the textual function of introducing new information exams at the university but also provides an explanation or reason connected to the previous information "I tried to study" which, as I see it, contributes to the coherence of the discourse as it expresses the relation of relevance between the preceding utterance and the context.
Case 30 in line 22 shows the way the student indicates the end of her turn. However, she uses the lexical phrase "that's all" which is not considered a DM by any of the scholars previously referred to. Another example that illustrates this issue is observable in the following excerpt:. Student 3 closes her turn using the expression "and no more" as shown in line of the transcription. The student's indication of the end of her turn makes the teacher assign a new one line to student 4 who uses the discourse marker well preceded by a filler as a turn taking signal.
The analysis of the data showed that relinquishing the floor is sometimes unmarked; that is, sometimes students do not use any DMs to indicate a close but instead, it is the teacher who closes their turn by using DMs such as ok or well. The interpersonal functions of DMs are precisely more related to the reactions, responses and relations built by the participants during interaction, that is, to the role of the speaker and hearer during the social and communicative exchange.
Interpersonal functions of DMs are revealed in the following examples as shown in the excerpt in Table 5: In line 2, the teacher uses right, and also ok in lines 3 and 9 , both with rising intonation, in order to check understanding and seek the students' agreement on his proposed activity. Student 1 responds in line 8 using ok to express understanding and agreement.
They typically do not add anything to the propositional content of the sentence. In addition, some other markers from Brinton's inventory did not occur after all, almost, anyway, basically, go "say", if, mind you, moreover, say, therefore, you see. Journal of Pragmatics, 39 1 , De Fina analysed the function of the Spanish marker bien in classroom interaction. Equally clear instances are, in my view, Iliad 3.
Cases 23 and 24, yeah and ah, are examples of DMs used by the interactants as response markers. As I see it, the teacher uses ah also to confirm his previous assumption which had been expressed as a question in line 17 at the university? The combination of two DMs as in case 28, oh yeah, is used by the teacher as a reaction marker which also has the interpersonal function of conveying agreement.
He agrees with the student about the common act of eating a lot during Christmas. The following excerpts 7 , 8 and 9 taken from the data further illustrate the textual and interpersonal functions of DMs in the interaction of this EFL class:. I stayed in my island, it is in the mediterraneo. Excerpt 7 shows that participants use DMs such as um lines 39, 41 and e lines 42, 43, 46 as pause fillers to indicate they keep holding the floor.
In lines 41 and 42, the student uses three DMs that aid in the construction of his discourse: In line 44 the DM eh? The teacher also uses reaction markers in line Oh really, with upward intonation, is both expressing a response of surprise and requesting confirmation from the student. In lines 46 and 48 the student uses yeah as a response and confirmation marker of the ongoing discourse. The DM oh used by the teacher in line 47 as a reaction to the confirmed information overlaps with the students' response marker yeah. Excerpt 8 is preceded by a communicative event in which student four is mainly narrating what she did during Christmas and on her birthday at the beginning of January.
S4 is interrupted by S2 who says that his birthday was also at the beginning of January. In line , student 2 tells the participants that his mom's birthday was on the same day:. In line student four responds with the DM uh and, in her attempt to regain her turn, she uses the DM and to signal her willingness to continue with her narration. As shown by the transcription conventions, S4 is interrupted by the teacher who takes the floor also using the DM and.
Discourse markers
Student 1 shows his response to the ongoing discourse about birthdays by using the reaction marker uh in line After some natural laughing, the teacher uses the DM OK, in line , as an explicit turn giver which aids student four in acquiring the floor. The DM and in line signals that S4 still holds the floor even if she has been interrupted turn taker and turn keeper and it also shows continuity, thematic connection and the addition of new information.
Finally, in line , the teacher uses the DM mhm after providing some corrective feedback to the student. This DM was used many times by the teacher as a backchannel signal.
Ancient Greek particles working as discourse markers
Moreover, mhm was also used by students, as illustrated by the following example:. In line , student one interacts with student 5 by using mhm as an agreement marker while the teacher uses mhm to provide permanent feedback and as a confirmation marker that the communication is on course. As the analyses reveal, discourse markers fulfill a number of textual and interpersonal functions which contribute greatly to the coherent and pragmatic flow of the discourse generated in classroom interaction.
The above described functions of markers such as so, because, and, ok and yeah are examples of "their apparent multifunctionality" Schiffrin, , p. As previously shown, DMs may be used simultaneously in several different ways. I do agree with Schiffrin on her assertion that DMs are contextdependant so that they "can gain their function through discourse" , p. These and other examples from the data illustrate how DMs function. Table 6 summarizes the functions of DMs used by participants in this specific class sample.
Again, it is clear that they can be multifunctional and that they serve both textual and interpersonal functions.
CATEGORY B
Nevertheless, it is important to point out that sometimes it was difficult to classify the function of the DM. As regards the distinct functional uses of discourse markers, it was observable that both the students and the teacher made use of these items to fulfill textual and interpersonal functions in the EFL classroom.
Generally, students mainly used DM to serve textual functions. Specially, they made great use of pause fillers and turn keepers e. In relation to interpersonal functions, cooperation and agreement markers were the most commonly used by the students e. Textual functions of DMs were highly used by the teacher as well. In the construction and organization of classroom discourse, the teacher used the DM and to indicate sequences, continuity and new information.
OK was often used as an opening and closing frame marker and it was very useful in the organization and assignment of turns during interaction. The teacher also used a variety of DMs that fulfill interpersonal functions such as backchannel signals, checking understanding markers, response and reaction markers and confirmation markers. On the whole, the prevailing uses of the discourse markers identified and analyzed in this smallscale study fulfill textual functions that aid the participants in structuring the classroom discourse coherently.
Finally, there was another element present in classroom interaction worth mentioning: Even though it is not considered a DM, it has attracted my attention; first, because it is very frequent; it appears 32 times and also, because it is used both by the nonnative teacher and the five adult EFL students. In agreement with Coates , I consider that laughter was used by the participants to signal their constant presence, a way to say "we are here, we are participating". Laughter also occurred to signal amusement and surprise, but as I see it, one of the most important functions of laughter in classroom interaction may be to release tension and to create a relaxed, comfortable atmosphere in which everyone is welcome to participate.
That is, the joint creation of a relaxed setting where the main goal is not only the exchange of information but the construction and maintenance of good social relations. DMs have been widely studied by researchers even if discussions on terminology and definable issues are still unresolved. However, there seems to be general agreement on the fact that the production of coherent discourse is an interactive process that requires speakers to draw upon communicative knowledge and pragmatic resources.
The fact that most of the studies on DMs have focused their attention on native or bilingual speakers of English who acquire this pragmatic competence in their childhood might be an indicator of the need to further explore and systematically investigate the language used by nonnative English teachers.
One of my goals with this exploratory study was to describe the occurrences and frequencies of DMs in EFL classroom interaction with the teacher being a nonnative speaker of the language. It was also observed that and was the DM most frequently used by both the teacher and the students and that some DMs such as say, therefore, you see or anyway were never used. I also aimed at providing an account for the main functions of DMs in classroom interaction.
In general, DMs were used by the nonnative teacher and the five adult students of English as a foreign language to serve structural, pragmatic and interactional purposes. The signal therefore helps the listener expecting a certain utterance intention of the speaker. Hence the former can somehow foresee the intention of the latter. A very important aspect is that the meaning of discourse signals does vary depending on the position in the discourse.
Making up a turn of their own can be equated with being simply one act. Yes can for example not only be an answer but a complete act that consists of a response-marker. In longer turns the same word would only be a part of the whole act. However, discourse signals do often appear at the end of a turn and at the beginning of new turns, as at these points interactional signals are necessary.
Nevertheless discourse signals still appear in the middle of a turn, as they help to structure the turn and organize the conversation. Apart from structuring the conversation, the main purpose of discourse signals is to function as gap or slot fillers. Gap fillers are used in the exchange between two turns, whereas one signal can fill more than one gap. Slot fillers are used among different slots within one single turn.
In this case it is also possible that one signal fills more than one slot in the turn. To sum up, the function and meaning of discourse signals is on the one hand dependant on the position in the conversation. On the other hand they can also do different things in the same place. Interaction signals are used to start, sustain and end a conversation.
There are many different occasions when to use interactional signals. When it comes to feedback it can be given e. I SEE or appealed e. RIGHT , signals can be used to involve the hearer in the conversation e. YOU know and to respond e. When it comes to the function as a gap-filler, interactional signals mostly occur in a turn of their own, which can be proven in the following examples. An exception would of course be turn 1, as an interactional signal always has to reply somehow to a proceeding turn.
Soziologie - Klassiker und Theorierichtungen. Psychologie - Allgemeine Psychologie.
Meaning and function of discourse signals - Catharina Kern - Essay - English Language and Literature Studies - Linguistics - Publish your bachelor's or master's. It is important to understand that in the term "discourse signals" two other terms are text will go into detail concerning function and meaning of discourse signals.
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