PENURIAS EXQUISITAS (Spanish Edition)

Sara Gruen

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But now the order of the matter in hand leads me to add something both as to those signs which I lately mentioned signs that the systems of philosophy and contemplation in use are in a bad condition , and also as to the causes of what seems at first so strange and incredible. For a knowledge of the signs prepares assent; an explanation of the causes removes the marvel — which two things will do much to render the extirpation of idols from the understanding more easy and gentle.

Scientiae, quas habemus, fere a Graecis fluxerunt. Quae enim scriptores Romani, aut Arabes, aut recentiores addiderunt, non multa aut magni momenti sunt: Erat autem sapientia Graecorum professoria, et in disputationes effusa: Itaque nomen illud sophistarum, quod per contemptum ab iis, qui se philosophos haberi voluerunt, in antiquos rhetores rejectum et traductum est, Gorgiam, Protagoram, Hippiam, Polum, etiam universo generi competit, Platoni, Aristoteli, Zenoni, Epicuro, Theophrasto, et eorum successoribus, Chrysippo, Carneadi, reliquis.

Sed tamen utrumque genus licet caetera dispar professorium erat, et ad disputationes rem deducebat, et sectas quasdam atque haereses philosophiae instituebat et propugnabat: At antiquiores illi ex Graecis, Empedocles, Anaxagoras, Leucippus, Democritus, Parmenides, Heraclitus, Xenophanes, Philolaus, reliqui nam Pythagoram, ut superstitiosum, omittimus , scholas quod novimus non aperuerunt: Itaque et melius, ut arbitramur, se gesserunt ; nisi quod opera eorum a levioribus istis, qui vulgari captui et affectui magis respondent ac placent, tractu temporis extincta sint: Neque tamen isti a nationis vitio prorsus immunes erant: Pro desperata autem habenda est veritatis inquisitio, cum ad hujusmodi inania deflectat.

Etiam non omittendum videtur judicium illud, sive vaticinium potius, sacerdotis Aegyptii de Graecis: Quod semper pueri essent ; neque haberent antiquitatem scientiae, aut scientiam antiquitatis. Et certe habent id quod puerorum est ; ut ad garriendum prompti sint, generare autem non possint: Itaque ex ortu et gente philosophiae quae in usu est, quae capiuntur signa bona non sunt.

The sciences which we possess come for the most part from the Greeks. For what has been added by Roman, Arabic, or later writers is not much nor of much importance; and whatever it is, it is built on the foundation of Greek discoveries. Now the wisdom of the Greeks was professorial and much given to disputations, a kind of wisdom most adverse to the inquisition of truth. Thus that name of Sophists, which by those who would be thought philosophers was in contempt cast back upon and so transferred to the ancient rhetoricians, Gorgias, Protagoras, Hippias, Polus, does indeed suit the entire class: There was this difference only, that the former class was wandering and mercenary, going about from town to town, putting up their wisdom to sale, and taking a price for it, while the latter was more pompous and dignified, as composed of men who had fixed abodes, and who opened schools and taught their philosophy without reward.

Still both sorts, though in other respects unequal, were professorial; both turned the matter into disputations, and set up and battled for philosophical sects and heresies; so that their doctrines were for the most part as Dionysius not unaptly rallied Plato "the talk of idle old men to ignorant youths. And therefore they were in my judgment more successful; only that their works were in the course of time obscured by those slighter persons who had more which suits and pleases the capacity and tastes of the vulgar; time, like a river, bringing down to us things which are light and puffed up, but letting weighty matters sink.

Still even they were not altogether free from the failing of their nation, but leaned too much to the ambition and vanity of founding a sect and catching popular applause. But the inquisition of truth must be despaired of when it turns aside to trifles of this kind. Nor should we omit that judgment, or rather divination, which was given concerning the Greeks by the Egyptian priest — that "they were always boys, without antiquity of knowledge or knowledge of antiquity.

And therefore the signs which are taken from the origin and birthplace of the received philosophy are not good. Neque multo meliora sunt signa quae ex natura temporis et aetatis capi possunt, quam quae ex natura loci et nationis. Angusta enim erat et tenuis notitia per illam aetatem vel temporis vel orbis: Neque enim mille annorum historiam, quae digna erat nomine historiae, habebant ; sed fabulas et rumores antiquitatis.

Regionum vero tractuumque mundi exiguam partem noverant: Nostris autem temporibus, et novi orbis partes complures et veteris orbis extrema undique innotescunt ; et in infinitum experimentorum cumulus excrevit. Quare si ex nativitatis aut geniturae tempore astrologorum more signa capienda sint, nil magni de istis philosophiis significari videtur. Nor does the character of the time and age yield much better signs than the character of the country and nation. For at that period there was but a narrow and meager knowledge either of time or place, which is the worst thing that can be, especially for those who rest all on experience.

For they had no history worthy to be called history that went back a thousand years — but only fables and rumors of antiquity. And of the regions and districts of the world they knew but a small portion, giving indiscriminately the name of Scythians to all in the North, of Celts to all in the West; knowing nothing of Africa beyond the hither side of Ethiopia, of Asia beyond the Ganges.

Much less were they acquainted with the provinces of the New World, even by hearsay or any well-founded rumor; nay, a multitude of climates and zones, wherein innumerable nations breathe and live, were pronounced by them to be uninhabitable; and the travels of Democritus, Plato, and Pythagoras, which were rather suburban excursions than distant journeys, were talked of as something great. In our times, on the other hand, both many parts of the New World and the limits on every side of the Old World are known, and our stock of experience has increased to an infinite amount.

Wherefore if like astrologers we draw signs from the season of their nativity or birth, nothing great can be predicted of those systems of philosophy. Inter signa, nullum magis certum aut nobile est, quam quod ex fructibus. Fructus enim et opera inventa pro veritate philosophiarum velut sponsores et fidejussores sunt. Atque ex philosophiis istis Graecorum, et derivationibus earum per particulares scientias, jam per tot annorum spatia, vix unum experimentum adduci potest, quod ad hominum statum levandum et juvandum spectet, et philosophiae speculationibus ac dogmatibus vere acceptum referri possit.

Idque Celsus ingenue ac prudenter fatetur ; nimirum, experimenta medicinae primo inventa fuisse, ac postea homines circa ea philosophatos esse et causas indagasse et assignasse ; non ordine inverso evenisse, ut ex philosophia et causarum cognitione ipsa experimenta inventa aut deprompta essent. Itaque mirum non erat, apud Aegyptios qui rerum inventoribus divinitatem et consecrationem attribuerunt plures fuisse brutorum animalium imagines quam hominum: At Chymicorum industria nonnulla peperit ; sed tanquam fortuito et obiter, aut per experimentorum quandam variationem ut mechanici solent , non ex arte aut theoria aliqua ; nam ea, quam confinxerunt, experimenta magis perturbat, quam juvat.

Eorum etiam, qui in magia quam vocant naturali versati sunt, pauca reperiuntur inventa ; eaque levia, et imposturae propiora. Quocirca, quemadmodum in religione cavetur, ut fides ex operibus monstretur ; idem etiam ad philosophiam optime traducitur, ut ex fructibus judicetur et vana habeatur quae sterilis sit: Of all signs there is none more certain or more noble than that taken from fruits.

For fruits and works are as it were sponsors and sureties for the truth of philosophies. Now, from all these systems of the Greeks, and their ramifications through particular sciences, there can hardly after the lapse of so many years be adduced a single experiment which tends to relieve and benefit the condition of man, and which can with truth be referred to the speculations and theories of philosophy. And Celsus ingenuously and wisely owns as much when he tells us that the experimental part of medicine was first discovered, and that afterwards men philosophized about it, and hunted for and assigned causes; and not by an inverse process that philosophy and the knowledge of causes led to the discovery and development of the experimental part.

And therefore it was not strange that among the Egyptians, who rewarded inventors with divine honors and sacred rites, there were more images of brutes than of men; inasmuch as brutes by their natural instinct have produced many discoveries, whereas men by discussion and the conclusions of reason have given birth to few or none.

Some little has indeed been produced by the industry of chemists; but it has been produced accidentally and in passing, or else by a kind of variation of experiments, such as mechanics use, and not by any art or theory. For the theory which they have devised rather confuses the experiments than aids them. They, too, who have busied themselves with natural magic, as they call it, have but few discoveries to show, and those trifling and imposture-like.

Wherefore, as in religion we are warned to show our faith by works, so in philosophy by the same rule the system should be judged of by its fruits, and pronounced frivolous if it be barren, more especially if, in place of fruits of grape and olive, it bear thorns and briers of dispute and contention. Capienda etiam sunt signa ex incrementis et progressibus philosophiarum et scientiarum. Quae enim in natura fundata sunt, crescunt et augentur: Itaque si istae doctrinae plane instar plantae a stirpibus suis revulsae non essent, sed utero naturae adhaererent atque ab eadem alerentur, id minime eventurum fuisset, quod per annos bis mille jam fieri videmus: In artibus autem mechanicis, quae in natura et experientiae luce fundatae sunt, contra evenire videmus: Signs also are to be drawn from the increase and progress of systems and sciences.

For what is founded on nature grows and increases, while what is founded on opinion varies but increases not. If therefore those doctrines had not plainly been like a plant torn up from its roots, but had remained attached to the womb of nature and continved to draw nourishment from her, that could never have come to pass which we have seen now for twice a thousand years; namely, that the sciences stand where they did and remain almost in the same condition, receiving no noticeable increase, but on the contrary, thriving most under their first founder, and then declining. Whereas in the mechanical arts, which are founded on nature and the light of experience, we see the contrary happen, for these as long as they are popular are continually thriving and growing, as having in them a breath of life, at the first rude, then convenient, afterwards adorned, and at all times advancing.

Etiam aliud signum capiendum est si modo signi appellatio huic competat ; cum potius testimonium sit, atque adeo testimoniorum omnium validissimum ; hoc est, propria confessio authorum, quos homines nunc sequuntur.

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Nam et illi qui tanta fiducia de rebus pronuntiant, tamen per intervalla cum ad se redeunt, ad querimonias de naturae subtilitate, rerum obscuritate, humani ingenii infirmitate, se convertunt. Hoc vero si simpliciter fieret, alios fortasse, qui sunt timidiores, ab ulteriori inquisitione deterrere, alios vero, qui sunt ingenio alacriori et magis fidenti, ad ulteriorem progressum acuere et incitare possit.

Verum non satis illis est de se confiteri, sed quicquid sibi ipsis aut magistris suis incognitum aut intactum fuerit id extra terminos possibilis ponunt, et tanquam ex arte cognitu aut factu impossiblile pronuntiant: Hinc schola Academiae novae, quae acatalepsiam ex professo tenuit, et homines ad sempiternas tenebras damnavit.

Hinc opinio, quod formae sive verae rerum differentiae quae revera sunt leges actus puri inventu impossibiles sint, et ultra hominem. Hinc opiniones illae in activa et operativa parte: Itaque ex hoc signo homines sibi persuaderi facile patientur, ne cum dogmatibus non solum desperatis, sed etiam desperationi devotis, fortunas suas et labores misceant. There is still another sign remaining if sign it can be called, when it is rather testimony, nay, of all testimony the most valid. I mean the confession of the very authorities whom men now follow. For even they who lay down the law on all things so confidently, do still in their more sober moods fall to complaints of the subtlety of nature, the obscurity of things, and the weakness of the human mind.

Now if this were all they did, some perhaps of a timid disposition might be deterred from further search, while others of a more ardent and hopeful spirit might be whetted and incited to go on farther. But not content to speak for themselves, whatever is beyond their own or their master's knowledge or reach they set down as beyond the bounds of possibility, and pronounce, as if on the authority of their art, that it cannot be known or done; thus most presumptuously and invidiously turning the weakness of their own discoveries into a calumny of nature herself, and the despair of the rest of the world.

Hence the school of the New Academy, which held Acatalepsia as a tenet and doomed men to perpetual darkness. Hence the opinion that forms or true differences of things which are in fact laws of pure act are past finding out and beyond the reach of man. Hence, too, those opinions in the department of action and operation; as, that the heat of the sun and of fire are quite different in kind — lest men should imagine that by the operations of fire anything like the works of nature can be educed and formed.

Hence the notion that composition only is the work of man, and mixture of none but nature — lest men should expect from art some power of generating or transforming natural bodies. By this sign, therefore, men will easily take warning not to mix up their fortunes and labors with dogmas not only despaired of but dedicated to despair. Neque illud signum praetermittendum est, quod tanta fuerit inter philosophos olim dissensio et scholarum ipsarum varietas: Atque licet hisce temporibus dissensiones et dogmatum diversitates circa principia ipsa, et philosophias integras, ut plurimum extinctae sint ; tamen circa partes philosophiae innumerae manent quaestiones et controversiae ; ut plane appareat, neque in philosophiis ipsis, neque in modis demonstrationum aliquid certi aut sani esse.

Neither is this other sign to be omitted: And although in these times disagreements and diversities of opinion on first principles and entire systems are for the most part extinguished, still on parts of philosophy there remain innumerable questions and disputes, so that it plainly appears that neither in the systems themselves nor in the modes of demonstration is there anything certain or sound. Quod vero putant homines, in philosophia Aristotelis magnum utique consensum esse ; cum post illam editam antiquorum philosophiae cessaverint et exoleverint ; ast apud tempora, quae sequuta sunt, nil melius inventum fuerit ; adeo ut illa tam bene posita et fundata videatur, ut utrumque tempus ad se traxerit: Sed temporibus insequentibus, ex inundatione Barbarorum in imperium Romanum, postquam doctrina humana velut naufragium perpessa esset ; tum demum philosophiae Aristotelis et Platonis, tanquam tabulae ex materia leviore et minus solida, per fluctus temporum servatae sunt.

Illud etiam de consensu fallit homines, si acutius rem introspiciant. Verus enim consensus is est, qui ex libertate judicii re prius explorata in idem conveniete consistit. At numerus longe maximus eorum, qui in Aristotelis philosophiam consenserunt, ex praejudicio et authoritate aliorum se illi mancipavit: Quod si fuisset ille verus consensus et late patens, tantum abest ut consensus pro vera et solida authoritate haberi debeat, ut etiam violentam praesumptionem inducat in contrarium. Pessimum enim omnium est augurium, quod ex consensu capitur in rebus intellectualibus: Nihil enim multis placet, nisi imaginationem feriat, aut intellectum vulgarium notionum nodis astringat, ut supra dictum est.

Itaque optime traducitur illud Phocionis a moribus ad intellectualia: Ut statim se examinare debeant homines, quid erraverint aut peccaverint, si multitudo consentiat et complaudat. Hoc signum igitur ex aversissimis est. Itaque quod signa veritatis et sanitatis philosophiarum et scientiarum, quae in usu sunt, male se habeant ; sive capiantur ex originibus ipsarum, sive ex fructibus, sive ex progressibus, sive ex confessionibus authorum, sive ex consensu ; jam dictum est. And as for the general opinion that in the philosophy of Aristotle, at any rate, there is great agreement, since after its publication the systems of older philosophers died away, while in the times which followed nothing better was found, so that it seems to have been so well laid and established as to have drawn both ages in its train — I answer in the first place, that the common notion of the falling off of the old systems upon the publication of Aristotle's works is a false one; for long afterwards, down even to the times of Cicero and subsequent ages, the works of the old philosophers still remained.

But in the times which followed, when on the inundation of barbarians into the Roman empire human learning had suffered shipwreck, then the systems of Aristotle and Plato, like planks of lighter and less solid material, floated on the waves of time and were preserved. Upon the point of consent also men are deceived, if the matter be looked into more keenly.

For true consent is that which consists in the coincidence of free judgments, after due examination. But far the greater number of those who have assented to the philosophy of Aristotle have addicted themselves thereto from prejudgment and upon the authority of others; so that it is a following and going along together, rather than consent. But even if it had been a real and widespread consent, still so little ought consent to be deemed a sure and solid confirmation, that it is in fact a strong presumption the other way.

For the worst of all auguries is from consent in matters intellectual divinity excepted, and politics where there is right of vote. For nothing pleases the many unless it strikes the imagination, or binds the understanding with the bands of common notions, as I have already said. We may very well transfer, therefore, from moral to intellectual matters the saying of Phocion, that if the multitude assent and applaud, men ought immediately to examine themselves as to what blunder or fault they may have committed. This sign, therefore, is one of the most unfavorable.

And so much for this point; namely, that the signs of truth and soundness in the received systems and sciences are not good, whether they be drawn from their origin, or from their fruits, or from their progress, or from the confessions of their founders, or from general consent. Jam vero veniendum ad causas errorum, et tam diuturnae in illis per tot secula morae ; quae plurimae sunt et potentissimae: Primo autem tot seculorum numerus, vere rem reputanti, ad magnas angustias recidit. Nam ex viginti quinque annorum centuriis, in quibus memoria et doctrina hominum fere versatur, vix sex centuriae seponi et excerpi possunt, quae scientiarum feraces earumve proventui utiles fuerunt.

Sunt enim non minus temporum quam regionum eremi et vastitates. Tres enim tantum doctrinarum revolutiones et periodi recte numerari possunt: Media mundi tempora, quoad scientiarum segetem uberem aut laetam, infelicia fuerunt. Neque enim causa est ut vel Arabum vel scholasticorum mentio fiat: Itaque prima causa tam pusilli in scientiis profectus ad angustias temporis erga illas propitii rite et ordine refertur.

I now come to the causes of these errors, and of so long a continuance in them through so many ages, which are very many and very potent; that all wonder how these considerations which I bring forward should have escaped men's notice till now may cease, and the only wonder be how now at last they should have entered into any man's head and become the subject of his thoughts — which truly I myself esteem as the result of some happy accident, rather than of any excellence of faculty in me — a birth of Time rather than a birth of Wit.

Now, in the first place, those so many ages, if you weigh the case truly, shrink into a very small compass. For out of the five and twenty centuries over which the memory and learning of men extends, you can hardly pick out six that were fertile in sciences or favorable to their development. In times no less than in regions there are wastes and deserts. For only three revolutions and periods of learning can properly be reckoned: And to each of these hardly two centuries can justly be assigned.

The intervening ages of the world, in respect of any rich or flourishing growth of the sciences, were unprosperous.

For neither the Arabians nor the Schoolmen need be mentioned, who in the intermediate times rather crushed the sciences with a multitude of treatises, than increased their weight. And therefore the first cause of so meager a progress in the sciences is duly and orderly referred to the narrow limits of the time that has been favorable to them.

At secundo loco se offert causa illa magni certe per omnia momenti: Atque haec ipsa nihilominus pro magna scientiarum matre haberi debet. Omnes enim artes et scientiae, ab hac stirpe revulsae, poliuntur fortasse et in usum effinguntur ; sed nil admodum crescunt. At manifestum est, postquam Christiana fides recepta fuisset et adolevisset, longe maximam ingeniorum praestantissimorum praestantissimorum partem ad theologiam se contulisse ; atque huic rei et amplissima praemia proposita, et omnis generis adjumenta copiosissime subministrata fuisse: At aevo superiori, durante periodo illa secunda apud Romanos, potissimae philosophorum meditationes et industriae in morali philosophia quae ethnicis vice theologiae erat occupatae et consumptae fuerunt: At illa aetas, qua naturalis philosophia apud Graecos maxime florere visa est, particula fuit temporis minime diuturna ; cum et antiquioribus temporibus septem illi, qui sapientes nominabantur, omnes praeter Thaletem ad moralem philosophiam et civilia se applicuerint ; et posterioribus temporibus postquam Socrates philosophiam de coelo in terras deduxisset, adhuc magis invaluerit moralis philosophia, et ingenia hominum a naturali averterit.

At ipsissima illa periodus temporis, in qua inquisitiones de natura viguerunt, contradictionibus et novorum placitorum ambitione corrupta est, et inutilis reddita. Itaque quandoquidem per tres istas periodos naturalis philosophia majorem in modum neglecta aut impedita fuerit, nil mirum si homines parum in ea re profecerint, cum omnino aliud egerint. In the second place there presents itself a cause of great weight in all ways, namely, that during those very ages in which the wits and learning of men have flourished most, or indeed flourished at all, the least part of their diligence was given to natural philosophy.

Yet this very philosophy it is that ought to be esteemed the great mother of the sciences. For all arts and all sciences, if torn from this root, though they may be polished and shaped and made fit for use, yet they will hardly grow. Now it is well known that after the Christian religion was received and grew strong, by far the greater number of the best wits applied themselves to theology; that to this both the highest rewards were offered, and helps of all kinds most abundantly supplied; and that this devotion to theology chiefly occupied that third portion or epoch of time among us Europeans of the West, and the more so because about the same time both literature began to flourish and religious controversies to spring up.

In the age before, on the other hand, during the continuance of the second period among the Romans, the meditations and labors of philosophers were principally employed and consumed on moral philosophy, which to the heathen was as theology to us. Moreover, in those times the greatest wits applied themselves very generally to public affairs, the magnitude of the Roman empire requiring the services of a great number of persons. Again, the age in which natural philosophy was seen to flourish most among the Greeks was but a brief particle of time; for in early ages the Seven Wise Men, as they were called all except Thales , applied themselves to morals and politics; and in later times, when Socrates had drawn down philosophy from heaven to earth, moral philosophy became more fashionable than ever, and diverted the minds of men from the philosophy of nature.

Nay, the very period itself in which inquiries concerning nature flourished, was by controversies and the ambitious display of new opinions corrupted and made useless. Seeing therefore that during those three periods natural philosophy was in a great degree either neglected or hindered, it is no wonder if men made but small advance in that to which they were not attending. Accedit et illud, quod naturalis philosophia in iis ipsis viris, qui ei incubuerint, vacantem et integrum hominem, praesertim his recentioribus temporibus, vix nacta sit ; nisi forte quis monachi alicujus in cellula, aut nobilis in villula lucubrantis, exemplum adduxerit: Atque magna ista scientiarum mater mira indignitate ad officia ancillae detrusa est ; quae medicinae aut mathematices operibus ministret, et rursus quae adolescentium immatura ingenia lavet et imbuat velut tinctura quadam prima, ut aliam postea foelicius et commodius excipiant.

Interim nemo expectet magnum progressum in scientiis praesertim in parte earum operativa , nisi philosophia naturalis ad scientias particulares producta fuerit, et scientiae particulares rursus ad naturalem philosophiam reductae. Hinc enim fit, ut astronomia, optica, musica, plurimae artes mechanicae, atque ipsa medicina, atque quod quis magis miretur philosophia moralis et civilis, et scientiae logicae, nil fere habeant altitudinis in profundo: Itaque minime mirum est si scientiae non crescant, cum a radicibus suis sint separatae. To this it may be added that natural philosophy, even among those who have attended to it, has scarcely ever possessed, especially in these later times, a disengaged and whole man unless it were some monk studying in his cell, or some gentleman in his country house , but that it has been made merely a passage and bridge to something else.

And so this great mother of the sciences has with strange indignity been degraded to the offices of a servant, having to attend on the business of medicine or mathematics, and likewise to wash and imbue youthful and unripe wits with a sort of first dye, in order that they may be the fitter to receive another afterwards. Meanwhile let no man look for much progress in the sciences — especially in the practical part of them — unless natural philosophy be carried on and applied to particular sciences, and particular sciences be carried back again to natural philosophy.

For want of this, astronomy, optics, music, a number of mechanical arts, medicine itself — nay, what one might more wonder at, moral and political philosophy, and the logical sciences — altogether lack profoundness, and merely glide along the surface and variety of things. Because after these particular sciences have been once distributed and established, they are no more nourished by natural philosophy, which might have drawn out of the true contemplation of motions, rays, sounds, texture and configuration of bodies, affections, and intellectual perceptions, the means of imparting to them fresh strength and growth.

And therefore it is nothing strange if the sciences grow not, seeing they are parted from their roots. Rursus se ostendit alia causa potens et magna, cur scientiae parum promoverint. Ea vero haec est ; quod fieri non possit, ut recte procedatur in curriculo, ubi ipsa meta non recte posita sit et defixa. Meta autem scientiarum vera et legitima non alia est quam ut dotetur vita humana novis inventis et copiis.

At turba longe maxima nihil ex hoc sapit, sed meritoria plane est et professoria ; nisi forte quandoque eveniat, ut artifex aliquis acrioris ingenii, et gloriae cupidus, novo alicui invento det operam ; quod fere fit cum facultatum dispendio. At apud plerosque tantum abest ut homines id sibi proponant, ut scientiarum et artium massa augmentum obtineat, ut ex ea, quae praesto est, massa nil amplius sumant aut quaerant, quam quantum ad usum professorium aut lucrum aut existimationem aut hujusmodi compendia convertere possint. Quod si quis ex tanta multitudine scientiam affectu ingenuo et propter se expetat ; invenietur tamen ille ipse potius contemplationum et doctrinarum varietatem, quam veritatis severam et rigidam inquisitionem sequi.

Rursus, si alius quispiam fortasse veritatis inquisitor sit severior ; tamen et ille ipse talem sibi proponet veritatis conditionem, quae menti et intellectui satisfaciat in redditione causarum rerum quae jampridem sunt cognitae ; non eam, quae nova operum pignora, et novam axiomatum lucem assequatur. Itaque, si finis scientiarum a nemine adhuc bene positus sit, non mirum est si in iis, quae sunt subordinata ad finem, sequatur aberatio. Again there is another great and powerful cause why the sciences have made but little progress, which is this.

It is not possible to run a course aright when the goal itself has not been rightly placed. Now the true and lawful goal of the sciences is none other than this: But of this the great majority have no feeling, but are merely hireling and professorial; except when it occasionally happens that some workman of acuter wit and covetous of honor applies himself to a new invention, which he mostly does at the expense of his fortunes.

But in general, so far are men from proposing to themselves to augment the mass of arts and sciences, that from the mass already at hand they neither take nor look for anything more than what they may turn to use in their lectures, or to gain, or to reputation, or to some similar advantage. And if any one out of all the multitude court science with honest affection and for her own sake, yet even with him the object will be found to be rather the variety of contemplations and doctrines than the severe and rigid search after truth.

And if by chance there be one who seeks after truth in earnest, yet even he will propose to himself such a kind of truth as shall yield satisfaction to the mind and understanding in rendering causes for things long since discovered, and not the truth which shall lead to new assurance of works and new light of axioms. If then the end of the sciences has not as yet been well placed, it is not strange that men have erred as to the means. Quemadmodum autem finis et meta scientiarum male posita sunt apud homines ; ita rursus etiamsi illa recte posita fuissent, viam tamen sibi delegerunt omnino erroneam et imperviam.

Quod stupore quodam animum rite rem reputanti perculserit ; non ulli mortalium curae aut cordi fuisse, ut intellectui humano ab ipso sensu et experientia ordinata et bene condita via aperiretur et muniretur ; sed omnia vel traditionum caligini, vel argumentorum vertigini et turbini, vel casus et experientiae vagae et inconditae undis et ambagibus permissa esse. Atque cogitet quis sobrie et diligenter, qualis sit ea via, quam in inquisitione et inventione alicujus rei homines adhibere consueverunt.

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Or sometimes I would say: It has to be explained! As storytellers came to know the tastes and interests of their audience, how much did they craft and pitch their stories accordingly? How much Bowles had Western audiences in mind as he worked on translations—how much he preserved or even heightened that sense of otherness—is open to debate. Bowles himself, however, describes the operation of a dialogic process, at least with respect to the oral storytellers whose work he translated: They knew what I liked from the beginning. When they began to record things for me, they saw my reactions, they saw that I liked certain things, such as violence, and bloodshed and hatred, and so on.

So they specialized in that, in general. His long novel I translated, For Bread Alone, had enough of violence and unpleasantness to please me. Elghandor, The bulk of the stories he translated contain a distinctive sense of the exotic, a strangeness, or at times an atmosphere charged with potential fear or violence.

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That quality, no doubt, is part of their allure and charm. Bowles, here, might leave himself open to postcolonial critique and charges that his translations exoticize the text. This calls to mind well-known recent debates in translation theory regarding domestication of the text vs. Toward an Ethics of Difference. These debates, it seems, are lodged within the context of the postcolonial condition.

Poetic Space, Liminality, and In-betweenness. Here then is where translation and postcolonial theory intersect, with a consideration of unequal power dynamics that come into play as things are moved from one place to another. Theory and Practice, Bassnett and Trivedi stress the manipulative force translation has in the transfer of meanings: Moreover, translation is a highly manipulative activity that involves all kinds of stages in that process of transfer across linguistic and cultural boundaries.

Translation is not an innocent, transparent activity but is highly charged with significance at every stage; it rarely, if ever, involves a relationship of equality between texts, authors or systems. It reveals hierarchical power relations and the refractions of meaning imposed by the confrontations of different languages and cultures. Frequently, for instance, those whose work Bowles translated had high, unrealistic expectations of monetary return, and blamed Bowles for cheating them when those expectations for compensation were not met.

A distinctly sexual component is woven into the fabric of this dynamic, firmly lodged within an Orientalist erotics as well as an economy and politics of post-colonialism. Translating from Tangier but document the lasting relationship between American expatriate and Moroccan writer. Still, without question, these interactions are fraught with all kinds of issues attendant to the postcolonial scene in which they play out. Certainly Bowles benefited from his translation work. It kept his name in circulation and brought modest monetary rewards.

The stories in later collections, beginning with One Hundred Camels in the Courtyard, stretching up to Midnight Mass and Unwelcome Words all written during the time he was actively involved in the translation projects described are written in a sparer style, and are often told from Moroccan perspectives. Read a Mrabet story and a Bowles story side by side Cad. So, too, these storytellers benefited from their contact with Bowles. Indeed, without him, likely their stories never would have been transcribed and their own names would not have been brought to light as authors.

Bowles was an important, in fact essential conduit, moving the stories from their Moroccan setting to a Western audience. His own reputation, the name recognition he had achieved through his own work as a writer and composer , arguably helped him make the sale to U.

Bowles personally acted as agent, presenting and working out deals with publishers, and his name—established writer, author of The Sheltering Sky—is used prominently in the marketing of these books. They are speaking and not silenced subjects. She goes on to point toward subversive potential in the project: Translating from Tangier First, the stories themselves often inscribe within them a critique consistent with postcolonial views, including autobiographical references and representations of exploitative relationships involving Moroccans and Europeans.

Their stories frequently feature economic hardships and struggle. David, an expatriate with whom he sleeps. In scenes such as these, binaries between homosexuality and heterosexuality are deconstructed at the same time disparities between native Moroccans and Western outsiders are heightened. Lodged within various texts are critiques of the very dynamic Bowles and Mrabet are involved in. For instance, in Chocolate Dreams and Dollars, the young Moroccan Driss is depicted recording his stories before a tape recorder. We finished the story.

Another dimension of this subversive potential lies in a process of circulation in which these writers, at first marginalized in their own countries then given enhanced credibility through the act of translation and publication in the West, now have begun to be made available to contemporary Moroccan audiences in a variety of forms. Now Moroccan colleagues tell me that Abdel Aziz Jadir is working on an Arabic translation of that novel. We can reasonably expect this activity of translation and publication in Morocco to continue in the coming years.

And with this, fresh analyses and perspectives of these works will no doubt emerge, ones that might possibly critique the conditions of their production. Without question, the space of exile provided him with conditions ripe for translation. It was in North Africa that he developed his knowledge of local languages, acquaintance with particular storytellers, and a desire to move works from one particular language and cultural scene to another.

Regardless of criticisms, we must acknowledge that Bowles helped give voice to local Moroccan creative talents that otherwise would likely never have been heard. Interview with Paul Bowles. International Centre for Performance Studies, The Homoerotics of Orientalism. Columbia U Press, Recorded by Paul Bowles, Dust to Digital, April 1, Black Sparrow Press Tiberon, Cal, Austin, Tex. Peter Owen, ; New York: Scenes from the Non-Christian World. Southern Illinois University Press, Paul Bowles and the Solitude of Tangier. Duke U Press, University of Ohio, Caponi, Gena Dagel, ed.

Conversations with Paul Bowles. University Press of Mississippi, A Study of the Short Fiction. A Life Full of Holes. State University of New York Press, Chocolate Creams and Dollars. Look and Move On. Black Sparrow Press, Love with a Few Hairs. Bowles, Burroughs, and Chester Write Tangier.

U of Wisconsin Press, The Illumination of North Africa. Accessed July 3, The Scandals of Translation: Regime of Domestication in English. Hesse Greutert Film, A pesar de las dificultades, algunos traductores prosiguieron su labor en el exilio. The Catalan language was banned in the public domain and publishing in Catalan became officially forbidden. However, despite the difficulties, some translators continued their work in exile. Asimismo, Carner expresaba los beneficios que los escritores y la cultura nacional obtienen gracias a las traduccio- nes. The waste land vio la luz en en Barcelona como La terra eixorca Ruiz , Editorial La Magrana, El Colegio de Jalisco, Jordana en el exilio: Studien zur romanischen Sprachwissenschaft und interkultureller Kommunikation, Peter Lang Edition Revista de Catalunya, 88 julio de Rovira i Virgili, Antoni.

Els darrers dies de la Catalunya republicana. A Contra Vent Editors, Dos traductores del exilio: Vasos Comunicantes 27 En primer lugar, nos interesaremos por las circunstancias de su trabajo de traductora. Rosa Chacel spent several decades in exile after the Spanish civil war.

She lived mainly in Buenos Aires and Rio de Janeiro. During this period of her life she combined her work as a novelist and essayist with literary translations. In this article we will present the work of Rosa Chacel as a translator from various angles. First, we examine the circu- mstances of her work as a translator. Our next question is to what extent Rosa Chacel dominated the foreign languages she was translating from. Then we will look at the traces this activity left in her novels. Finally, we consider the connections that can be established between the works she translated and her own aesthetic concepts.

Bueno, en todo este tiempo han llovido actividades: Traducciones, con- ferencias […]. El viernes 26 de agosto de anota: Sin embargo no consta que haya protestado por haber cobrado tan poco. El 29 de agosto de , apunta en su diario: Es pesimista con respecto a las posibilidades en este campo. El 20 de septiembre de escribe: En esta lengua contaba con competencias suficientes para realizar traducciones literarias de calidad. Eliot, Christopher Fry y J. Priestley con su firma. En el caso de Christo- pher Fry, no se menciona una segunda mano. No se es- conde la dificultad de la tarea ibidem, Al darse cuenta de que necesita un par de zapatos, reflexiona: Lo leo de corrido y me encuentro con lo inadaptable a nuestro tiempo.

Es en los ratos del Estambul donde me quedo a veces meditando: Como Elena ha podido elegir una obra maestra literaria, no le cuesta trabajo traducirla: Lo que normalmente llena de orgullo a Elena, ahora le produce rechazo: Esto no es un juego de palabras: En este conjunto se insertan las traducciones asumidas, como la del ensayo de Renato Poggioli sobre el arte de vanguardia, encargada por la Revista de Occidente, algo que queda patente en este apunte de su diario: Su autoexigencia ha dado sus frutos, prueba de ello es que sus traducciones teatrales se siguen representando6.

Centro de Estudios Literarios. De mar a mar. Journal of Franco-Iberian studies 2 A study of the Argentine literary journal and its role in the development of a culture Un viaje de ida y vuelta: Universidad Pompeu Fabra, Otero Carvajal, Luis E. Traductores y traducciones en la literatura argentina del siglo XX. Siglo veintiuno editores Argentina, Miguel Alfredo Olivera; Reinaldo y Armida.

La dama no es para la hoguera. Noailles, Condesa Anna de. Revista de Occidente, This article explores the phenomenon of literature produced by writers who had to flee from Nazi-Germany between in which they use translation as a form of multilingual writing. Can translation be seen as a concept or a technique of literary writing in exile and how does it reflect aesthetically on the existential difficulties of language in exile? Ja, man kann es getrost aussprechen: Seine Argumentation weist dabei in zweierlei Richtung: Erst Ende der er Jahre beginnt sie im Exil in der Dominikanischen Republik, umgeben vom Spanischen, das sie gut beherrscht, literarisch zu schreiben — auf Deutsch.

Er stimmt, es ist alles richtig, aber der Duft, das Leben ist fort. Vermutlich lernt und spricht sie bereits als Kind Jiddisch und Deutsch. Bevor sie aus dem nationalsozialistischen Deutschland erneut ins Exil, in diesem Fall nach New York, gehen muss, hat sie sich in Berlin als bekannte Schriftstellerin etabliert.

Der kleine Unterschied liegt in der Bedeutung, die mit Assoziationen, Konnotationen und nicht zuletzt mit Erinnerungen und Emotionen verbunden ist. Die Gewissheit ist dahin. Sie lernt zwar schnell und gut Englisch; verdient sogar Geld mit englischen Texten. Doch Dichtung entsteht nur in der Muttersprache, die tiefere Quellen hat. Seit wann sinn Sie denn in Njujork? Assemeliern, das iss die Losung.

Das hab ich schon in Berlin vertreten, das sage ich jetzt auch in Njujork. Wosmer gut geht, da bin ich zehause. Wo ich meine Steuern zahle, da is mein Vaterland. Noch eleganter, wirkliches Englisch: Zum Beispiel, wenn der Sprachlehrer Doosie berichtet, woher er sein gutes Englisch hat: Answer, in two words: Answer, in somewhat greater detail: Nor was my German of any use to them: Therefore, the one thing left to me was to work for foreigners living in that country. Darf ich Sie Lesa nennen? Klingt Ihnen zu schnodderig berlinerisch? Nur bitte nicht Keinzahl. Das kann ich Ihnen doch nicht in den Mund gelegt haben.

Also Sie sind wiedergekommen. Bibliografe Berendsohn, Walter A.: Von bis zum Kriegsausbruch. Hamburg University Press, Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag Fast ein Lebenslauf []. Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag Fischer Taschenbuch, Verlag []. Deutsche Sprache und Literatur. Franklin Kopitzsch und Dierk Brietzke Hg. Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, Forschung, Erkenntnisse, Ergebnisse 30 En fue secuestrada en Guatemala y hasta ahora se desconoce el paradero de sus restos. In she was kidnapped in Guatemala and the resting place of her remains is still unknown.

Foppa was a woman of many talents: The focus is on three of the available poetry translations, from Fren- ch, Italian and English: Diaspora connects the exiles with intellectuals and writers who were already outside the country when the coups happened, who also feel connected. Incluso ciertos autores ni siquiera mencionan la labor de traductora de Foppa Salinas Translation as a specific form of interpretation, it seems justified to say at this point, always involves recontextualization.

Retrospectively, in its status as reproduction it may be considered to constitute an act of recontextualization, and in its status as independent text it is itself subject to the entire mechanism of de-and recontextualization. The poem that is the object of translation inevitably vanishes during the translation process, replaced by a network of signification — intertextual, interdiscursive, intersemiotic — that is rooted mainly in the receiving situation. Hence poetry translation tends to release language from the narrowly defined communicative function that most translations are assumed to serve, whether the genre of their source texts is technical, pragmatic, or humanistic — namely, the communication of a formal or semantic invariant contained in the source text.

Poetry translators are often also involved in wider text- production processes: La poeta trata de recon- ciliar ambos aspectos: Esta es la respuesta de Foppa: From an untroubled mind should De mente imperturbada han de verses flow; fluir los versos. Oxlie Citado por Tillie Oslen en Silen- ces. Sin embargo, el poema de Mary Oxlie de Morpet no es un poema de amor. En el caso del poema de Mary Oxlie es importante el contexto de la revista feminista en la que fue publicado.

Hieronymus Complutensis 3, Los dedos de mi mano. Editorial Artemis- Edinter, Universidad de Granada 26 Handbook of Translation Studies Writing The Latin American Diaspora. University of Minnesota Press, From World to World: La Jornada 5 de diciembre de Estudos Feministas, 17 3: Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxlie of Morpet, Mary. La Jornada 21 de octubre de El eco de tu nombre.

Variaciones Borges 19 Special issue Translation Studies , London: This paper aims to explore the power exerted by the translator to form cultural identities and to build literary images that often overlap or blur national borders. A causa delle sue accese critiche al governo cinese e al suo ruolo internazio- nalmente riconosciuto di scrittore dissidente, infatti, i suoi romanzi non circolano nel suo Paese di origine, la Repubblica Popolare Cinese, pur essendo scritte in lingua cinese e, invece, sono distribuite e conosciute essenzialmente grazie alla traduzione in lingua inglese di Flora Drew.

He is referred to by different definitions: It is hardly surprising that most of the few academic works devoted to him are based on a thematic analysis, and are mainly focused on the bio-political power of his fiction. This issue, in my opinion, has not been taken sufficiently into account: Besides, the critics and scholars who analyse and discuss his novels in most cases refer to the English versions of his works, rather than to the original Chinese version.

A meaningful and multiple shift or overlapping of identities is the result of this unavoidable translingual and transcultural process, and a great responsibility is placed on the process of translation itself. This condition is reflected in the experimental use of the voice and the perspective featured in his works. A weakening of his Chinese roots and of the aesthetic value of his style is the price he must pay in order to obtain a freer channel of expression. In the fourth section some examples will be provided 1 The only exceptions are the Italian translation of Lamianzhe and some short stories translated into French directly from Chinese.

Finally, some evidence will be given of his use of narrative mode in his novels narrator and perspective as an allegoric device to represent his ambiguous, denied identity. The reception of a transnational author and the writing space According to Shuyu Kong, the previous study of dissident Chinese writers, such as Gao Xingjian and Ma Jian, has largely been conducted in the context of political dissidence and exilic writing against the Chinese Communist Party-State.

This constrains, to a large degree, the possibility of exploring the broader meanings of their writing beyond the political dimension. This determines of course a certain publishing and editorial policy which I have described elsewhere Pesaro His main aim is to denounce to a Western audience rights-abusing practices in his homeland, through the voice of his translator. On the one hand, he does not belong to China anymore, as English has become the main language and vehicle for his ideas and his stories, and most of his readers are not Chinese, or at least expatriate Chinese.

Kong , Thus, Ma can be defined through the relatively new category of sinophone2 writers. Although Chinese is his writing language, for spatial and ideological reasons he cannot be called a Chinese author in the traditional sense. Besides, this label also implies that a sinophone author always represents, to a certain extent, a counter-discourse against the centralising and hegemonic Chinese ideology. However, at the aesthetic level, his novels are still infused with Chinese cultural-specific elements and traditional references, which are supposed to be understood and appreciated better by a Chinese reader.

The most striking effect of this paradox is that many of these elements undergo an unavoidable process of domestication or simplification in the English rendition. Every day, it picks up twigs and stones from the mountain and drops them into the East Sea, trying in vain to fill it up. When the protagonist Meili finally gives birth to her baby on a precarious boat, she looks at the tiny body: What a beautiful dawn! White infant spirits are falling from the sky, like beans scattered by Goddess Nuwa, but as soon as they touch the earth they vanish.

Today is March the 9th, the first day of spring. I can see the sun is about to come up. Her white toes rise above the surface like lotuses on a green lake. The English rendition, though equally powerful, changes some details, trying to disambiguate what is implicit in the source language. Besides, the choice made by Ma Jian himself of having his books translated from English into other languages makes this domestication process deeper, often creating an even further distance from the original Chinese text.

According to the writer, the new space which has been created by this unavoidable shift from his country to the West, from the Chinese language to the target language English , is the only literary space Ma Jian can conceive for himself, as we read in this interview: This space is entirely your own; there is nobody that reviews it, and there is nobody who has set foot there before.

Damgaard , By means of such a shifting process, along with a space for free writing, the writer acquires a new identity, which defies ethnic, geographical and even cultural borders. In the new millennium, while many literary exiles have returned to China or given up their creative writing completely, others have turned their once-temporary exile into a permanent existential state. Writers and poets such as […] Ma Jian find that living abroad not only provides them with a creative space sheltered from political censorship and the more beguiling temptations of the market, but also gives them an alternative perspective on literature, identity and their homeland.

Kong , Cad. In particular, his two latest novels, respectively on the Tiananmen incident Beijing Coma , and on the effects of the ruthless implementation of the Chinese one-child-policy The Dark Road , directly expose two of the most brutal scandals in Chinese recent history. The metatext thus acquires an independent identity perfectly consistent with the effect expected by the author of the prototext, yet, undeniably Cad.

The writer is widely recognised for his translated texts rather than for the source text. That is why he acquires the status of a translational author, who shares his authorship with the translator. At the same time, he acquires a translational and translingual identity which does not always perfectly overlap with his writing identity.

Ma Jian, as a politically engaged writer, wishes his novels to be read by a wide audience, and to convey his political message. However, like any writer who aspires to a broader recognition of his work and thought, he is also the product of his own writing, his literary style, use of metaphors, syntax, rhythm, and imagery. It is up to the craftsmanship of the translator to reproduce or reinvent all these elements in the target language.

On the one hand, according to him, assigning the role of reference text to the English version allows him to express his discontent and his criticism against China in a freer way. On the other hand, in the opinion of some mainland China scholars and writers, it is legitimate and advisable to promote Chinese literature through translation, in order to make significant Chinese works be part of world literature and to spread Chinese civilisation outside China: In this way, people of other countries can read and appreciate excellent Chinese cultural products through the intermediary of translation or by means of English.

Even when our Western colleagues have really mastered the Chinese language, it is still difficult for them to understand the nuances of Chinese culture and the subtleties of Chinese aesthetic spirit. So for the time we can more effectively communicate with the international community using the English language, the most popular international working language, by means of which we can translate and introduce our excellent cultural products to the world.

Wang , 83 This leaves us with the apparent clash between an anti-state, subversive use of translation, and its opposite use for nationalistic and self-congratulatory aims. As a matter of fact, both Ma Jian, with his translational choice, and some Chinese academics, seem sceptical towards the possibility for western readers and translators to be really able to grasp the Chinese cultural essence, and they seem to believe that the Chinese language is fundamentally unfathomable in its deeper meanings and nuances4.

However, at the same time, they are confident they are able to convey the subtleties of their own culture and language by translating Chinese texts themselves or by writing them directly in English. In the case of Ma Jian, what we have is not a self- translation, but a translation made by his closest companion in life.

So, albeit for different reasons, all these authors have pragmatically established English as the most suitable language, and translation as the most convenient practice in order to gain a wider audience. As a result cultural misunderstandings inevitably arise between Chinese and non-Chinese. However, what really happens to the text undergoing this process? Translation strategies Undeniably the translation strategy adopted by Flora Drew tends to enhance the political message of the text, by focussing on the main target-readership, a western audience whose cultural background might not be fully adequate to receive a culture-specific text.

I will just give a few examples of these domesticating strategies. In the beginning, the main characters and the village from which the peasants flee in order to avoid punishment at the hands of state officials are vividly presented through very dramatic scenes. The main translation strategy is a shift from the implicit to the explicit. Meili is perched on the end of the bed, her hands carefully crossed over her belly. This mark is in her eyes a dangerous clue for her parents-in-law, but her pregnancy is not explicitly mentioned. Another series of changes concern names, quotations and culture- specific details that are neutralised or modified during the translating process.

These changes do not affect the message of the text, nor do they obscure its cultural background, but they contribute to a general simplification, avoiding redundancies and what is perceived as unnecessary local details. Beyond the apparent attack against a world that perpetrates its brutal oppression over women and children, these two perspectives also represent the voice of a marginalised exiled author who recovers his centrality by means of literature and translation.

This dual narration relates both the detailed memories of his past until the fatal day of June 4, and the internal experience of his mind exploring from outside the comatose body as if it were a fabulous land. I suggest that this splitting of the narrating subjectivity plays a twofold role by epitomising a dual identity: As Damgaard puts it, in the novel: The whole structure of the novel is based on a split perspective.

Nevertheless, I believe that this image powerfully reflects Ma Jian himself as a marginalised author: Dai Wei is just a stinking, dying body without any physical faculties of a human being. As marginal as the author Ma Jian, who is completely invisible, whose works are banned, and whose temporary presence is tightly monitored in China, Dai Wei does not exist to any other Chinese people except his mother, and there only as an unbearable burden.

Zhai , In addition, this also hints at a dual literary aspiration or double authorship: In The Dark Road this double identity is even clearer, and it seems as though a mystical reunion of the two sides occurs, which reconnects the writing aspiration to the translating performance. Meili is the main focalising character, although the story is told by an extradiegetic third-person narrator. Moreover, Ma Jian experiments with a different narrator: Meili is a mother for whom even reading is difficult, her only wealth is the ability of bearing children, but her uterus is just controlled by the government.

Therefore we discover that perhaps maternal love becomes the only form of resistance. When this family, which has exceeded the targeted birth rate, wanders to Heaven Township, where e-waste is disassembled, she gets pregnant again, but the foetus refuses to be born in such a hell on earth, polluted by chemistry and frightened by the one-child policy. So she decides to protect it in her uterus, waiting to go back to a legal place to deliver it.

In his physical and linguistic exile, Ma Jian finds comfort in the re-creative power of translation. The final text and the style of his novels are therefore the result of this transnational and translational process, which is artistically and symbolically epitomised by the writer himself through the narrative devices of the split perspective and multifocalisation. A New Comparative Literature. On the Politics of Untranslatability. PhD Dissertation, University of Copenhagen.

Temple University Press The Dark Road, Trans. Constraints and Liberties in Translating Chinese. A Critical Reader, Towards an Ethic of Difference. Translation, Globalisation and Localisation: The Issue of Illegitimacy: Electronic Theses, Treatises and Dissertations, Both Ngugi and Dorfman have, in different ways, been forced out of their home countries, they have sought exile in the USA, and they have written and translated into and out of English throughout their lives. Rio de Janeiro, Brasil.

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