A Family Affair: Volume One (One Reason Publications Presents Book 1)

Keyon Polite

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In his history, Polybius c. The main part of the work, a vital achievement despite the incomplete state in which all but the first five books of an original forty survive, describes the rise of Rome, its destruction of Carthage, and its eventual domination of the Greek world. Callimachus third century BCE authored hymns and epigrams. The monodrama Alexandra is attributed to his contemporary, Lycophron.

Phaenomena , a poem on star constellations and weather signs by Aratus c. The Double Indictment or Trials by Jury. The Ignorant Book Collector. The Dream or Lucian's Career. The Lover of Lies. The Judgement of the Goddesses. On Salaried Posts in Great Houses. Unlike his predecessors, Epictetus c. History of Rome, Volume II: Lives of the Sophists. Lives of the Philosophers and Sophists. Panegyric on Probinus and Olybrius.

Against Rufinus 1 and 2. Against Eutropius 1 and 2. Fescennine Verses on the Marriage of Honorius. Epithalamium of Honorius and Maria. Panegyrics on the Third and Fourth Consulships of Honorius. A panegyric on the brothers Probinus and Olybrius consuls together in CE was followed mostly by epics in hexameters, but also by elegiacs, epistles, epigrams, and idylls. On Stilicho's Consulship Panegyric on the Sixth Consulship of Honorius. Historia Augusta, Volume I: Of uncertain reliability and authorship, it is now attributed by many authorities to one late fourth century CE author.

Historia Augusta, Volume II: Greek Lyric, Volume I: Sappho , the most famous woman poet of antiquity, whose main theme was love, and Alcaeus , poet of wine, war, and politics, were two illustrious singers of sixth-century BCE Lesbos. Greek Lyric, Volume II: The Anacreonta were composed over several centuries. Greek Lyric, Volume V: Dithyrambic poets of the new school were active from the mid-fifth to mid-fourth century BCE. Seven of his eighty or so plays survive complete, including the Oresteia trilogy and the Persians , the only extant Greek historical drama.

Epidemics 1 and 3. Regimen in Acute Diseases. On Wounds in the Head. Compendium of Roman History. Res Gestae Divi Augusti. Ecclesiastical History, Volume I: Eusebius , Bishop of Caesarea from about CE, was the most important writer in the age of Constantine. His history of the Christian church from the ministry of Jesus to CE is a treasury of information, especially on the Eastern centers. De Corona, De Falsa Legatione. Demosthenes — BCE , orator at Athens, was a pleader in law courts who also became a champion of Athenian greatness and Greek resistance to Philip of Macedon.

His steadfastness, pungent argument, and control of language gained him early reputation as the best of Greek orators, and his works provide vivid pictures of contemporary life. Aeneas Tacticus, Asclepiodotus, and Onasander. The surviving work of Aeneas fourth century BCE is on defense against siege.

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Asclepiodotus first century BCE wrote a work on Tactics as though for the lecture room, based on earlier manuals, not personal experience. Post Reditum in Senatu. Post Reditum ad Quirites. The main part of his history covers the years — BC, describing the rise of Rome, the destruction of Carthage, and the eventual domination of the Greek world. It is a vital achievement despite the incomplete survival of all but the first five of forty books. The Histories, Volume VI: For this six-volume edition of The Histories , W.

All but the first five of forty volumes survive in an incomplete state. Volume VI includes fragments unattributed to particular books of The Histories. Menippus or The Descent into Hades. A Professor of Public Speaking. Alexander the False Prophet. Essays in Portraiture Defended. The Goddesse of Surrye. In Memorabilia and in Oeconomicus , a dialogue about household management, we see the philosopher Socrates through the eyes of his associate, Xenophon.

In the Symposium , we obtain insight on life in Athens. History of the Wars, Volume IV: The Aqueducts of Rome , written in 97—98, gives some historical details and a description of the aqueducts for the water supply of the city, with laws relating to them. Roman History, Volume IX: In Acharnians a small landowner, tired of the Peloponnesian War, magically arranges a personal peace treaty; Knights is perhaps the most biting satire of a political figure Cleon ever written.

Women at the Thesmophoria. The protagonists of Birds create a utopian counter-Athens. In Lysistrata wives go on conjugal strike until their husbands end war. Women in Women at the Thesmophoria punish Euripides for portraying them as wicked. Traditional Aeschylus and modern Euripides compete in Frogs. In Assemblywomen , Athenian women plot against male misgovernance.

In his didactic poem De Rerum Natura On the Nature of Things he expounds Epicurean philosophy so as to dispel fear of the gods and death, and promote spiritual tranquility. Constitution of the Lacedaemonians. Constitution of the Athenians. Minor works by Xenophon c. The Constitution of the Athenians , though not by Xenophon, is an interesting document on Athenian politics. Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Volume I: Diogenes Laertius probably early third century BCE compiled his compendium on the lives and doctrines of the ancient philosophers from hundreds of sources.

It ranges over three centuries, from Thales to Epicurus, portraying 45 important figures, and is enriched by numerous quotations. The major works of Josephus c. Also by him are an autobiographical Life and a treatise Against Apion. Description of Greece, Volume II: Books Laconia, Messenia, Elis 1. Basil the Great was born into a family noted for piety. About he founded a convent in Pontus and in succeeded Eusebius in the archbishopric of Caesarea. His reform of monastic life in the east is the basis of modern Greek and Slavonic monasteries.

History of Rome, Volume IV: In the Satires Horace mocks himself as well as the world. His verse epistles include the Art of Poetry , in which he famously expounds his literary theory. The Education of Children. On Listening to Lectures. How to Tell a Flatterer from a Friend. His extant works other than the Parallel Lives are varied, about sixty in number, and known as the Moralia Moral Essays. They reflect his philosophy about living a good life, and provide a treasury of information concerning Greco-Roman society, traditions, ideals, ethics, and religion.

Pro Rabirio Perduellionis Reo. Hamilton Demetrius Innes, Doreen C. The subject of On the Sublime , attributed to an unidentifiable Longinus and probably composed in the first century CE, is greatness in writing. On Style , attributed to an unidentifiable Demetrius and perhaps composed in the second century BCE, analyzes four literary styles. Alcibiades I and II. He shares with Lysias pure Attic and lucidity of style, but his more aggressive and flexible presentation undoubtedly influenced Demosthenes.

Of at least fifty attributed orations, there survive eleven on legacy cases and a large fragment dealing with a claim of citizenship. The Learned Banqueters, Volume I: In The Learned Banqueters late-2nd century CE , Athenaeus describes a series of dinner parties at which the guests quote extensively from Greek literature. The work provides quotations from works now lost, and preserves information about wide range of information about Greek culture. Letters to Friends, Volume I: The verse is light in touch, with a distinct pictorial quality. Mozley, is now reissued with corrections by Christopher A.

Greek literary education and Roman political reality are evident in the poetry of Statius c. His Silvae are thirty-two occasional poems. His masterpiece, the epic Thebaid , recounts the struggle for kingship between the two sons of Oedipus. Nicocles or the Cyprians. Twenty-one discourses by Isocrates survive; these include political essays, treatises on education and on ethics, and speeches for legal cases.

Nine letters, more on public than private matters, are also extant. Moral Essays, Volume I: In Moral Essays , Seneca c. Letters to Friends, Volume II: History of the Wars, Volume V: In Fishing , Oppian of Cilicia, who flourished in the latter half of the second century CE, discusses fish and gives angling instructions. The Chase , on hunting, may be the work of a Syrian imitator. The poem is also called Pharsalia. The Verrine Orations, Volume I: Against Verres, Part 1; Part 2, Books How to Profit by One's Enemies. On Having Many Friends. Letter of Condolence to Apollonius.

Advice About Keeping Well. Advice to Bride and Groom. The Dinner of the Seven Wise Men. Sophron and Other Mime Fragments. Fictionalized faults are the focus of Characters by Theophrastus c. The Hellenistic poet Herodas wrote mimes in which everyday life is portrayed and character—as opposed to plot—depicted. Mimes by Sophron fifth century BCE and anonymous mime fragments also represent that genre.

Allegorical Interpretation of Genesis 2 and 3. In attempting to reconcile biblical teachings with Greek philosophy he developed ideas that had wide influence on Christian and Jewish religious thought. The Sacrifices of Abel and Cain. The Worse Attacks the Better. On the Posterity and Exile of Cain. Florus second century CE wrote, in brief pointed rhetorical style, a two-book summary of Roman history especially military in order to show the greatness and decline of Roman morals. His Ibis is an elegiac curse-poem. History of Rome, Volume V: Anabasis of Alexander, Volume I: The Anabasis of Alexander by Arrian ca.

Orations and Philippics 3 and 4. Answer to Philip's Letter. For the Liberty of the Rhodians. On the Agrarian Law. Jewish Antiquities, Volume I: Of a much larger number about thirty complete speeches by him survive. Fluent, simple, and graceful in style yet vivid in description, they suggest a passionate partisan who was also a gentle, humorous man.

Sayings of Kings and Commanders. The Ancient Customs of the Spartans. Sayings of Spartan Women. On the Unchangeableness of God. Concerning Noah's Work As a Planter. Ecclesiastical History, Volume II: Lives of the Abbots. Octavius by Minucius , an early Christian writer of unknown date, is a debate between belief and unbelief that depicts Roman religion and society. On Architecture , completed by Vitruvius sometime before 27 CE and the only work of its kind to survive antiquity, serves not professionals but readers who want to understand architecture.

Topics include town planning, building materials, temples, the architectural orders, houses, pavements, mosaics, water supply, measurements, and machines. In Fasti , Ovid 43 BCE—17 CE sets forth explanations of the festivals and sacred rites that were noted on the Roman calendar, and relates in graphic detail the legends attached to specific dates. The poem is an invaluable source of information about religious practices. Moral Essays, Volume II: De Consolatione ad Marciam.

De Consolatione ad Polybium. De Consolatione ad Helviam. Philostratus the Elder, Imagines. Philostratus the Younger, Imagines. Sixty-five descriptions, ostensibly of paintings in a gallery at Naples, are credited to an Elder Philostratus born c. Fourteen descriptions of statues in stone or bronze attributed to Callistratus were probably written in the fourth century CE. What survives of his works make him prominent in the revival of Greek literature in the late first and early second century CE. The Greek poetry of the seventh to the fifth century BCE that we call elegy was composed primarily for banquets and convivial gatherings.

Its subject matter consists of almost any topic, excluding only the scurrilous and obscene. The poetry of the seventh to the fifth centuries BCE that the Greeks called iambic seems connected with cult songs used in religious festivals, but its purpose is unclear. On the Confusion of Tongues.

On the Migration of Abraham. Who Is the Heir of Divine Things? On Mating with the Preliminary Studies. The letters of Saint Jerome c. Firmus, Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus. Carus, Carinus and Numerian. Select Papyri, Volume I: This is the first of two volumes giving a selection of Greek papyri relating to private and public business.

Most were found in rubbish heaps or remains of ancient houses or in tombs in Egypt. From such papyri we get much information about administration and social and economic conditions in Egypt, and about native Egyptian, Greek, Roman and Byzantine law, as well as glimpses of ordinary life. Agreements 71 examples ; these concern marriage, divorce, adoption, apprenticeship, sales, leases, employment of labourers. Personal letters from men and women, young and old Orders for payment 2. Accounts and inventories Questions of oracles 3.

Anabasis of Alexander, Volume II: The three surviving works by Sextus Empiricus c. Their value as a source for the history of thought is especially that they represent development and formulation of former skeptic doctrines. The Learned Banqueters, Volume V: On Flight and Finding. On the Change of Names. It also echoes poets, especially Virgil, and employs techniques traditional in Latin epic. Library of History, Volume I: The work is in three parts: Books 1—5 and 11—20 survive complete, the rest in fragments.

On Architecture, Volume II: Select Papyri, Volume II: Greek papyri relating to private and public business in Egypt from before BCE to the eighth century CE inform us about administration; social and economic conditions in Egypt; Egyptian, Greek, Roman, and Byzantine law. They also offer glimpses of ordinary life. Minor Latin Poets, Volume I: Wight Duff, Arnold M. Works such as those of the mime-writer Publilius Syrus , who flourished c.

Gaius Valerius Flaccus flourished c. Valerius effectively rehandles the story already told by Apollonius Rhodius , recalls Virgilian language and thought, displays learning, and alludes to contemporary Rome. In Secret History , the Byzantine historian Procopius late fifth century to after CE attacks the sixth century CE emperor Justinian and empress Theodora and alleges their ruinous effect on the Roman empire.

Celsus , a layman, provides in On Medicine more information about the condition of medical science up to his own time probably first century CE than any other author. Book 1 is on Greek schools of medicine and dietetics; Book 2 on prognosis, diagnosis, and general therapeutics; Book 3 on internal ailments; Book 4 on local bodily diseases. Against Verres, Part 2, Books Fragmentary Republican Latin, Volume I: Quintus Ennius — , widely regarded as the father of Roman literature, was instrumental in creating a new Roman literary identity, domesticating the Greek forms of epic and drama, and pursuing a range of other literary and intellectual pursuits.

He inspired major developments in Roman religion, social organization, and popular culture. History of Rome, Volume IX: Extant works by Sidonius born c. Description of Greece, Volume IV: Description of Greece, Volume V: Maps, Plans, Illustrations, and General Index. Against Aristogeiton 1 and 2. History of Rome, Volume X: The Passing of Peregrinus. The Parliament of the Gods.

Library of History, Volume II: Book 5 is on treatment by drugs of general diseases, Book 6 on treatment by drugs of local diseases. Greek and Roman Parallel Stories. On the Fortune of the Romans. On the Fortune or the Virtue of Alexander.

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The E at Delphi. The Obsolescence of Oracles. On Marvellous Things Heard. The Situations and Names of Winds. On Melissus, Xenophanes, Gorgias. Minor Attic Orators, Volume I: Antiphon of Athens, born c. Of his fifteen extant works three concern real murder cases. The others are academic exercises. Andocides of Athens, born c. Of his four extant speeches, Against Alcibiades is doubtful. History of Rome, Volume XI: Extant early Latin writings from the seventh or sixth to the first century BCE include epic, drama, satire, translation and paraphrase, hymns, stage history and practice, and other works by Ennius , Caecilius , Livius Andronicus , Naevius , Pacuvius , Accius , Lucilius , and other anonymous authors; the Twelve Tables of Roman law; archaic inscriptions.

Although Problems is an accretion of multiple authorship over several centuries, it offers a fascinating technical view of Peripatetic method and thought. Roman Antiquities, Volume I: Of the twenty books from the earliest times to BCE we have the first nine complete; most of 10 and 11; extracts; and an epitome of the whole. On the Special Laws, Books To an Uneducated Ruler. On Monarchy, Democracy, and Oligarchy. That We Ought Not to Borrow. Jewish Antiquities, Volume IV: The Tale of a Traveling-Bag. Topics included are the mathematics and metrology of the universe; world geography and ethnography; human anthropology and physiology; zoology; botany, agriculture, and horticulture; medicine; minerals, fine arts, and gemstones.

On the Latin Language, Volume I: Greek Mathematical Works, Volume I: Greek mathematics from the sixth century BCE to the fourth century CE is represented by the work of, e. Can Virtue Be Taught? On the Control of Anger. On Tranquility of Mind. On Affection for Offspring. On the Special Laws, Book 4. On Rewards and Punishments. In On Buildings , the Byzantine historian Procopius late fifth century to after CE describes the churches, public buildings, fortifications, and bridges Justinian erected throughout his empire, from the Church of St. Sophia in Constantinople to city walls at Carthage.

The work is richly informative about architecture of the sixth century CE. Roman Antiquities, Volume II: Eight works or parts of works were ascribed to Manetho , a third century BCE Egyptian, all on history and religion and all apparently in Greek. Natural History, Volume II: History of Rome, Volume VI: Fragments of ancient literature, from the seventh to the third century BCE, found on papyri in Egypt include examples of tragedy; satyr drama; Old, Middle, and New Comedy; mime; lyric, elegiac, iambic, and hexametric poetry. Columella first century CE included Cato and Varro among many sources for On Agriculture , but his personal experience was paramount.

Written in prose except for the hexameters on horticulture of Book 10, the work is richly informative about country life in first century CE Italy. Every Good Man is Free. On the Contemplative Life. On the Eternity of the World. Apology for the Jews. Roman Antiquities, Volume IV: Jewish Antiquities, Volume V: History of Alexander, Volume I: The first two of ten books have not survived and material is missing from books 5, 6, and History of Alexander, Volume II: Natural History, Volume IV: Natural History, Volume V: Roman Antiquities, Volume V: Concerning the Team of Horses.

Library of History, Volume IV: Library of History, Volume IX: Roman Antiquities, Volume VI: On the Embassy to Gaius. Alciphron, Aelian, and Philostratus: The fictitious, highly literary Letters of Alciphron second century CE are mostly to invented characters. The Letters of Farmers by Aelian c. The Erotic Epistles of Philostratus perhaps born c. Library of History, Volume V: The Best Kind of Orator.

Prudentius born CE used allegory and classical Latin verse forms in service of Christianity. Library of History, Volume X: Natural History, Volume VI: Natural History, Volume IX: Lycurgus was with Demosthenes in the anti-Macedonian faction. But Dinarchus favored an oligarchy under Macedonian control and Demades supported the Macedonian cause too. Library of History, Volume VI: On Coming-to-be and Passing Away. African War and Spanish War are detailed accounts clearly by officers who had shared in the campaigns.

But most recent editors attribute it to an unknown author. On Love of Wealth. On Envy and Hate. On Praising Oneself Inoffensively. On the Delays of the Divine Vengeance. On the Sign of Socrates. Consolation to His Wife. On the Principle of Cold. On the Eating of Flesh. Library of History, Volume XI: Fragments of Books City of God, Volume V: City of God, Volume VI: Natural History, Volume X: Aetia, Iambi, Hecale and Other Fragments.

Callimachus Musaeus Trypanis, C. Hero and Leander by Musaeus fifth or sixth century CE is a short epic poem. On the Malice of Herodotus. Causes of Natural Phenomena. Reply to Colotes in Defence of the Other Philosophers. Is "Live Unknown" a Wise Precept? How to Write History. A Slip of the Tongue in Greeting. Apology for the "Salaried Posts in Great Houses. A Conversation with Hesiod. The Scythian or The Consul. Dialogues of the Dead. Dialogues of the Sea-Gods. Dialogues of the Gods. Dialogues of the Courtesans. Lucius or The Ass. In Tetrabiblos , a core text in the history of astrology, the preeminent ancient astronomer Ptolemy c.

From the same period come the lively fables in Latin verse written by Phaedrus , which satirize social and political life in Augustan Rome. History of Animals, Volume I: History of Animals, Volume II: Porphyry on the Life of Plotinus. His writings were edited by his disciple Porphyry , who published them sometime between and CE in six sets of nine treatises each Enneads , with a biography of his master in which he also explains his editorial principles. In On the Characteristics of Animals , Aelian c. Natural Questions, Volume I: In Book 1 he discusses fires in the atmosphere; in 2, lightning and thunder; in 3, bodies of water.

Selected Orations, Volume I: Libanius — CE , who was one of the last great publicists and teachers of Greek paganism, has much to tell us about the tumultuous world of the fourth century CE. His works include Orations , the first of which is an autobiography, and Letters. Selected Orations, Volume II: Orations 2, , 30, 33, 45, History of the Empire, Volume I: The History of Herodian born c.

History of the Empire, Volume II: Jewish Antiquities, Volume IX: Natural Questions, Volume II: Eusebius's Reply to Hierocles. Greek Lyric, Volume IV: Bacchylides, Corinna, and Others. Bacchylides wrote masterful choral poetry of many types. Letters to Quintus and Brutus. Two invective speeches linked with Cicero are probably anonymous exercises. The Letter to Octavian likely dates from the third or fourth century CE.

The Handbook of Electioneering was said to be written by Quintus to Cicero. Critical Essays, Volume I: Dionysius of Halicarnassus , born c. They constitute an important development from the somewhat mechanical techniques of rhetorical handbooks to more sensitive criticism of individual authors. Critical Essays, Volume II: Letters to Ammaeus and Pompeius. Extant are parts of his De Viris Illustribus , including biographies of mostly Greek military commanders and of two Latin historians, Cato and Atticus. In Astronomica first century CE , the earliest extant treatise we have on astrology, Manilius provides an account of celestial phenomena and the signs of the Zodiac.

He also gives witty character sketches of persons born under particular constellations. De Causis Plantarum, Volume I: In the latter, Theophrastus turns to plant physiology. Books 1 and 2 are concerned with generation, sprouting, flowering and fruiting, and the effects of climate. In Books 3 and 4, Theophrastus studies cultivation and agricultural methods.

In Books 5 and 6, he discusses plant breeding; diseases and other causes of death; and distinctive flavours and odours. Stesichorus, Ibycus, Simonides, and Others. Autobiography and Selected Letters, Volume I: Wasps satirizes Athenian enthusiasm for jury service. Peace is a rollicking attack on war-makers. Jewish Antiquities, Volume VI: Jewish Antiquities, Volume II: Memorable Doings and Sayings, Volume I: Valerius Maximus compiled his handbook of notable deeds and sayings in the reign of Tiberius 14—37 CE.

The Orator's Education, Volume V: Genealogical epic of that archaic era includes poems that create prehistories for Corinth and Samos. These works are an important source of mythological record. The Lesser Declamations perhaps date from the second century CE and are perhaps derived from Quintilian. The collection originally consisted of sample cases for legal training. Comments and suggestions the instructor adds to his model speeches for fictitious court cases offer insight into Roman law and education.

Over forty of his plays were read in antiquity, from which nearly a thousand fragments survive. Though attributed to Hesiod eighth or seventh century BC in antiquity, the Catalogue of Women , a presentation of legendary Greek heroes and episodes according to maternal genealogy; The Shield , a counterpoint to the Iliadic shield of Achilles; and certain poems that survive as fragments were likely not composed by Hesiod himself.

Works by authors such as Philitas of Cos , Alexander of Aetolia , Hermesianax of Colophon , Euphorion of Chalcis and, especially, Parthenius of Nicaea , who composed the mythograpical Sufferings in Love , represent rich inventiveness in Hellenistic prose and poetry from the fourth to the first century BCE. Anatomical and Minor Clinical Writings. Cast in the form of a dialogue it treats diverse topics while showcasing Virgil as master of all human knowledge, from diction to religion.

Cast in the form of a dialogue, it treats diverse topics while showcasing Virgil as master of all human knowledge, from diction to religion. Fragments of Old Comedy, Volume I: The era of Old Comedy c. But the work of many other poets, including Cratinus and Eupolis , the other members, with Aristophanes, of the canonical Old Comic Triad, survives in fragments. Method of Medicine, Volume I: In Method of Medicine , Galen — CE provides a comprehensive and influential account of the principles of treating injury and disease. Enlivening the detailed case studies are many theoretical and polemical discussions, acute social commentary, and personal reflections.

Method of Medicine, Volume II: In The Learned Banqueters, Athenaeus describes a series of dinner parties at which the guests quote extensively from Greek literature. The work which dates to the very end of the second century AD is amusing reading and of extraordinary value as a treasury of quotations from works now lost. Nature of the Child.

Nature of Women and Barrenness. Discourses 1 and 2. Heroicus is a vineyard conversation about the beauty, continuing powers, and worship of the Homeric heroes. Gymnasticus is the sole surviving ancient treatise on sports, which reshapes conventional ideas about the athletic body. Fragments of the Histories. In this volume, John T. Ramsey has freshly edited the Histories and the two pseudo-Sallustian Letters to Caesar , completing the Loeb Classical Library edition of his works.

On the Constitution of the Art of Medicine. The Art of Medicine. A Method of Medicine to Glaucon. In the three works in this volume, On the Constitution of the Art of Medicine , The Art of Medicine , and A Method of Medicine to Glaucon , the physician, philosopher, scientist, and medical historian Galen of Pergamum covers fundamental aspects of his practice in a lucid and engaging style. Early Greek Philosophy, Volume I: It stated that confidential French military documents regarding the newly developed calibre artillery piece [22] were about to be sent to a foreign power.

In fact the SR suspected that there had been leaks since the beginning of and had been trying to find the perpetrator. The minister had been harshly attacked in the press for his actions, which were deemed incompetent, [25] and appears to have sought an opportunity to enhance his image. To find the culprit, using simple though crude reasoning, [28] the circle of the search was arbitrarily restricted to suspects posted to, or former employees of, the General Staff — necessarily a trainee artillery [Note 8] officer. The ideal culprit was identified: These origins were not, however, exceptional because these officers were favoured by France for their knowledge of the German language and culture.

In fact, the reputation [33] of Dreyfus as a cold and musty character, even haughty, as well as his "curiosity", worked strongly against him. These traits of character, some false, others natural, made the charges plausible by turning the most ordinary acts of everyday life in the ministry into proof of espionage. From the beginning a biased and one-sided multiplication of errors led the State to a false position. This was present throughout the affair, where irrationality prevailed over the positivism in vogue in that period: From this first hour the phenomenon occurred that will dominate the whole affair.

It is no longer controlled by facts and circumstances carefully examined which will constitute a belief; it is the irresistible cavalier conviction which distorts the facts and beliefs. To condemn Dreyfus, the writing on the bordereau had to be compared to that of the Captain. There was nobody competent to analyse the writing on the General Staff. On being shown some letters by Dreyfus and the bordereau on 5 October, du Paty concluded immediately who had written the two writings.

After a day of additional work he provided a report that, despite some differences, the similarities were sufficient to warrant an investigation. Dreyfus was therefore "the probable author" of the bordereau in the eyes of the General Staff. General Mercier believed he had the guilty party, but he exaggerated the value of the affair, which took on the status of an affair of state during the week preceding the arrest of Dreyfus. The Minister did consult and inform all the authorities of the State, [39] yet despite prudent counsel [Note 10] and courageous objections expressed by Gabriel Hanotaux in the Council of Ministers [40] he decided to pursue it.

Meanwhile several parallel sources of information were opening up, some on the personality of Dreyfus, others to ensure the truth of the identity of the author of the bordereau. The expert [Note 11] Gobert was not convinced and found many differences. He even wrote that "the nature of the writing on the bordereau excludes disguised handwriting". He was initially no more positive than Gobert but he did not exclude the possibility of its being the writing of Dreyfus.

On 13 October , without any tangible evidence and with an empty file, General Mercier summoned Captain Dreyfus for a general inspection in "bourgeois clothing", i. The purpose of the General Staff was to obtain the perfect proof under French law: That confession was to be obtained by surprise — by dictating a letter based on the bordereau [45] [46] to reveal his guilt. In the morning of 15 October Captain Dreyfus underwent this ordeal but admitted nothing. Du Paty even tried to suggest suicide by placing a revolver in front of Dreyfus, but he refused to take his life, saying he "wanted to live to establish his innocence".

The hopes of the military were crushed. Nevertheless Du Paty de Clam still arrested the captain, [47] accused him of conspiring with the enemy, and told him that he would be brought before a court-martial. Dreyfus was imprisoned at the Cherche-Midi prison in Paris. Dreyfus was informed of the arrest the same day by a police raid to search their apartment. She was terrorized by Du Paty, who ordered her to keep the arrest of her husband secret and even said, "One word, one single word and it will be a European war!

The captain was morally supported by the first Dreyfusard, Major Forzinetti, commandant of the military prisons of Paris. This marked the beginning of a very brutal press campaign until the trial. This event put the affair in the field of antisemitism where it remained until its conclusion.

On 1 November Alfred's brother, Mathieu Dreyfus, became aware of the arrest after being called urgently to Paris. He became the architect of the arduous fight for the liberation of his brother. On 3 November General Saussier the Military governor of Paris reluctantly [54] gave the order for an enquiry. He had the power to stop the process but did not, perhaps because of an exaggerated confidence in military justice. On 4 December Dreyfus was referred to the first Military Court with the empty file. The secrecy was lifted and Demange could access the file for the first time. After reading it the lawyer had absolute confidence, as he saw the emptiness of the prosecution's case.

During the two months before the trial, the press went wild. The jousting of the columnists took place within a broader debate about the issue of a closed court. For Ranc and Cassagnac, who represented the majority of the press, the closed court was a low manoeuvre to enable the acquittal of Dreyfus, "because the minister is a coward". The proof was "that he grovels before the Prussians" by agreeing to publish the denials of the German ambassador in Paris. The trial opened on 19 December at one o'clock [65] and a closed court was immediately pronounced.

The closed court allowed the military to still not disclose the emptiness of their evidence to the public and to stifle debate. Detailed discussions on the bordereau showed that Captain Dreyfus could not be the author. Finally, the absence of motive for the crime was a serious thorn in the prosecution case. Dreyfus was indeed a very patriotic officer highly rated by his superiors, very rich and with no tangible reason to betray France. Alphonse Bertillon , who was not an expert in handwriting, was presented as a scholar of the first importance. He advanced the theory of "autoforgery" during the trial and accused Dreyfus of imitating his own handwriting, explaining the differences in writing by using extracts of writing from his brother Matthieu and his wife Lucie.

This theory, although later regarded as bizarre and astonishing, seems to have had some effect on the judges. He swore on oath that the traitor was Dreyfus, pointing to the crucifix hanging on the wall of the court. The problem had an undeniable effect on the court, which was composed of seven officers who were both judges and jury.

The outcome of the trial remained uncertain. The conviction of the judges had been shaken by the firm and logical answers of the accused. Military witnesses at the trial alerted high command about the risk of acquittal. For this eventuality the Statistics Section had prepared a file containing, in principle, four "absolute" proofs of the guilt of Captain Dreyfus accompanied by an explanatory note. The contents of this secret file remained uncertain until , when they were released by the French Ministry of Defence. Among these letters were some of an erotic homosexual nature the Davignon letter among others raising the question of the tainted methods of the Statistics Section and the objective of their choice of documents.

The letter was supposed to accuse Dreyfus definitively since, according to his accusers, it was signed with the initial of his name. He contradicted himself, however, by saying that he read only one document, "which was enough". On 22 December , after several hours of deliberation, the verdict was reached. Seven judges unanimously convicted Alfred Dreyfus of collusion with a foreign power, to the maximum penalty under section 76 of the Criminal Code: Dreyfus was not sentenced to death , as it had been abolished for political crimes since For the authorities, the press and the public, doubts had been dispelled by the trial and his guilt was certain.

Right and left regretted the abolition of the death penalty for such a crime. Antisemitism peaked in the press and occurred in areas so far spared. So why leave this miserable traitor alive? While the drums rolled, Dreyfus was accompanied by four artillery officers, who brought him before an officer of the state who read the judgment. A Republican Guard adjutant tore off his badges, thin strips of gold, his stripes, cuffs and sleeves of his jacket. Witnesses report the dignity of Dreyfus, who continued to maintain his innocence while raising his arms: Long live the Army".

The Adjutant broke his sword on his knee and then the condemned Dreyfus marched at a slow pace in front of his former companions. In the van that brought him to the military school, Dreyfus is said to have confided his treachery to Captain Lebrun-Renault. Due to the affair's being related to national security, the prisoner was then held in solitary confinement in a cell awaiting transfer.

He had the right to see his wife twice a week in a long room, each of them at one end, with the director of the prison in the middle. On 21 February , he embarked on the ship Ville de Saint-Nazaire. The next day the ship sailed for French Guiana. Dreyfus was allowed to write on paper numbered and signed. He underwent censorship by the commandant even when he received mail from his wife Lucie, whereby they encouraged each other. On 6 September , the conditions of life for Dreyfus worsened again; he was chained double looped , forcing him to stay in bed motionless with his ankles shackled.

This measure was the result of false information of his escape revealed by a British newspaper. For two long months, Dreyfus was plunged into deep despair, convinced that his life would end on this remote island. Mathieu Dreyfus , the elder brother of Alfred, was convinced of his innocence. He was the chief architect of the rehabilitation of his brother and spent his time, energy and fortune to gather an increasingly powerful movement for a retrial in December , despite the difficulties of the task: After the degradation emptiness was around us.

It seemed to us that we were no longer human beings like others, we were cut off from the world of the living… [95]. Mathieu tried all paths, even the most fantastic. Gibert in a private conversation. Little by little, despite threats of arrest for complicity, machinations and entrapment by the military, he managed to convince various moderates. In Lazare published the first Dreyfusard booklet in Brussels. The campaign for the review, relayed little by little into the leftist anti-military press, triggered a return of a violent yet vague antisemitism.

At the request of his superiors, General Boisdeffre , Chief of the General Staff and Major-General Gonse , he was charged with the task of growing the file to prevent any attempt at a review. Unable to find any evidence, he decided to build some after the fact. In March Picquart, who had followed the Dreyfus Affair from the outset, now required to receive the documents stolen from the German Embassy directly without any intermediary.

On seeing letters from Esterhazy, Picquart realized with amazement that his writing was exactly the same as that on the "bordereau", which had been used to incriminate Dreyfus. He procured the "secret file" given to the judges in and was astonished by the lack of evidence against Dreyfus, and became convinced of his innocence.

Moved by his discovery, Picquart diligently conducted an enquiry in secret without the consent of his superiors. Ferdinand Walsin Esterhazy was a former member of French counterespionage where he had served after the war of After this, everything was done to oust him from his position, with the help of his own deputy, Major Henry. It was primarily the upper echelons of the Army that did not want to admit that Dreyfus's conviction could be a grave miscarriage of justice.

For Mercier, then Zurlinden and the General Staff, what was done was done and should never be returned to. The nationalist press launched a violent campaign against the burgeoning Dreyfusards. In counter-attack, the General Staff discovered and revealed the information hitherto ignored in the "secret file". An investigation was started against him, he was monitored when he was in the east, then transferred to Tunisia "in the interest of the service".

At this moment Major Henry chose to take action. On 1 November , he created a false document, subsequently called the "faux Henry" [Henry forgery], [Note 20] keeping the header and signature [Note 21] of an ordinary letter from Panizzardi, and wrote the central text himself:. I read that a deputy will call on Dreyfus. If you ask further explanations from Rome, I would say that I never had relations with the Jew. If asked, speak like that, because that person should never know what happened with him.

This was a rather crude forgery. Generals Gonse and Boisdeffre, however, without asking questions, brought the letter to their minister, General Billot. The doubts of the General Staff regarding the innocence of Dreyfus flew out the window. Major Henry accused Picquart of embezzlement and sent him a letter full of innuendo. Picquart confided in his friend, lawyer Louis Leblois, who promised secrecy.

Leblois, however, spoke to the vice president of the Senate, the Alsatian Auguste Scheurer-Kestner , who was in turn infected by doubts. Without citing Picquart, the senator revealed the affair to the highest people in the country. The General Staff, however, still suspected Picquart of causing leaks.

This was the beginning of the Picquart affair, a new conspiracy by the General Staff against an officer. Major Henry, although deputy to Picquart, was jealous and fostered his own malicious operation to compromise his superior. Parallel to the investigations of Picquart, the defenders of Dreyfus were informed in November that the identity of the writer of the "bordereau" was Esterhazy.

Mathieu Dreyfus had a reproduction of the bordereau published by Le Figaro. A banker, Castro, formally identified the writing as that of Esterhazy, who was his debtor, and told Mathieu. On 11 November , the two paths of investigation met during a meeting between Scheurer-Kestner and Mathieu Dreyfus. The latter finally received confirmation that Esterhazy was the author of the note. Based on this, on 15 November Mathieu Dreyfus made a complaint to the minister of war against Esterhazy. At the end of , Picquart returned to Paris and made public his doubts about the guilt of Dreyfus because of his discoveries.

Collusion to eliminate Picquart seemed to have failed. To discredit Picquart, Esterhazy sent, without effect, letters of complaint to the president of the republic. Scheurer-Kestner in Le Figaro , which was the first article in a series of three. The Dreyfus Affair occupied more and more discussions, something the political world did not always recognize.

There is not now and there can be no Dreyfus affair. General Georges-Gabriel de Pellieux was responsible for conducting an investigation. It was brief, thanks to the General Staff's skillful manipulation of the investigator. The real culprit, they said, was Lieutenant-Colonel Picquart. The militarist press rushed to the rescue of Esterhazy with an unprecedented antisemitic campaign. The Dreyfusard press replied with strong new evidence in its possession. The law must stop sucking up to this ineffectual Prussian disguised as a French officer. Who trembles before Esterhazy?

What occult power, why shamefully oppose the action of justice? What stands in the way? Why is Esterhazy, a character of depravity and more than doubtful morals, protected while the accused is not? Why is an honest soldier such as Lieutenant-Colonel Picquart discredited, overwhelmed, dishonoured? If this is the case we must speak out! Although protected by the General Staff and therefore by the government, Esterhazy was obliged to admit authorship of the Francophobe letters published by Le Figaro.

This convinced the Office of the General Staff to find a way to stop the questions, doubts, and the beginnings of demands for justice. The idea was to require Esterhazy to demand a trial and be acquitted, to stop the noise and allow a return to order. Thus, to finally exonerate him, according to the old rule Res judicata pro veritate habetur , [Note 25] Esterhazy was set to appear before a military court on 10 January A "delayed" closed court [Note 26] trial was pronounced.

Esterhazy was notified of the matter on the following day, along with guidance on the defensive line to take. The trial was not normal: Pellieux intervened to defend the General Staff without legal substance. By error an innocent person was convicted, but on order the guilty party was acquitted. For many moderate Republicans it was an intolerable infringement of the fundamental values they defended. The acquittal of Esterhazy therefore brought about a change of strategy for the Dreyfusards.

Liberalism-friendly Scheurer-Kestner and Reinach , took more combative and rebellious action. Flush with victory, the General Staff arrested Picquart on charges of violation of professional secrecy following the disclosure of his investigation through his lawyer, who revealed it to Senator Scheurer-Kestner. When Mathieu thanked him, he replied curtly that he was "doing his duty". To avoid personal risk he went into exile in England, where he lived comfortably and ended his days in the s. The first great Dreyfusard intellectual , Zola was at the height of his glory: He was a leader in the literary world and was fully conscious of it.

It can be served by the sword or by the pen. General Pellieux has probably won great victories! I have won mine, too. By my work the French language has been brought into the world. I have my victories! Outraged by the acquittal of Esterhazy, Zola decided to strike a blow. With a typical circulation of 30,, the newspaper distributed nearly , copies that day. This article had the effect of an explosion. The article was a direct attack, explicit and clear, and named names. It denounced all those who had conspired against Dreyfus, including the minister of war and the General Staff.

The article contained numerous errors, exaggerating or minimizing the roles of one or another of the figures involved. His trial forced a new public review of both the Dreyfus and Esterhazy affairs. Here he went against the strategy of Scheurer-Kestner and Lazare, who advocated patience and reflection.

From that critical moment the case followed two parallel paths. On one hand, the state used its apparatus to impose a limitation on the trial, restricting it to one of simple libel so as to separate the Dreyfus and Esterhazy cases, which had already been adjudicated. On the other hand, conflicting camps of opinion tried to influence judges and the government—one side pushed to obtain a review and the other to convict Zola.

But Zola achieved his aim: On 15 January Le Temps published a petition calling for a retrial. On 20 January , after an anti-Zola speech by rightist politician Albert de Mun at the Chamber of Deputies , the chamber voted —22 to prosecute Zola. On 1 February Barres lambasted the intellectuals in Le Journal.

Editorial Reviews

Anti-intellectualism became a major theme of right-wing intellectuals, who accused the Dreyfusards of failing to put the nation's interests first, an argument that continued throughout the years that followed and which became the basis of the public debate: Defamation of a public authority was liable to trial in the Cour d'Assises , while insults to private figures—such as journalists and intellectuals—uttered by the nationalist and antisemitic press were limited to the civil adversarial system. The taxpayer is at risk in the first case, while only the plaintiff is at risk in the second.

The minister referred to only three passages of Zola's article, [] eighteen lines out of hundreds. He accused Zola of having written that the court martial had committed "unlawful acts [ Fernand Labori , Zola's lawyer, intended to call about witnesses. The details of the Dreyfus Affair, unknown to most of the public, were published in the press. Several papers [Note 31] published shorthand notes verbatim of the debates every day to build support in the population. These notes were, for the Dreyfusards, an essential tool for later debates.

The nationalists, behind Henri Rochefort , however, were more visible and organized riots, which forced the prefect of police to intervene to protect Zola whenever he left the facility [] after every hearing. This trial was also the scene of a real legal battle in which the rights of the defence were constantly violated.

Evidently the court received instructions not to raise the subject of former judicial errors. President Delegorgue, on the pretext of the long duration of the hearings, juggled the law incessantly to ensure that the trial dealt only with the alleged defamation by Zola. Delegorgue's phrase "the question will not be put" was repeated dozens of times. Zola was sentenced to one year in prison and a fine of 3, francs, [Note 32] which was the maximum penalty. This harshness was due to the atmosphere of violence surrounding the trial. In addition, the violent attacks against Zola and the injustice of the conviction of Dreyfus reinforced the commitment of the Dreyfusards.

I declare that Justice is the most beautiful word in the language of men and I must cry if men no longer understand it". Even more than the Dreyfus Affair the Zola affair resulted in a regrouping of intellectual forces into two opposing camps. On 2 April an application to the Supreme Court received a favourable response. This was the court's first intervention in the affair. The military court made the complaint, rather than the minister. Prosecutor-General Manau supported a review of the Dreyfus trial and strongly opposed the anti-Semites. The judges of the military court, whom Zola had challenged, sued him for libel.

The case was brought before the Assizes of Seine-et-Oise in Versailles where the public was considered more favourable to the army and more nationalistic. On 23 May , at the first hearing, Mr. Labori appealed to the Supreme Court regarding the change of jurisdiction, which adjourned the trial and postponed the hearing to 18 July Labori advised Zola to leave France for England before the end of the trial, which the writer did, departing for a one-year exile in England.

The defendants were convicted again. As for Colonel Picquart, he found himself again in prison. Anti-Semitism made considerable progress and riots were common throughout the year However politicians were still in denial about the affair. Nevertheless the cause of the Dreyfusards was restarted. Godefroy Cavaignac , the new minister of war and a fierce supporter of anti-revisionism, definitely wanted to prove the guilt of Dreyfus and from there "wring the neck" of Esterhazy, whom he considered "a pathological liar and blackmailer".

He was surprised to learn that all the documents on which the prosecution was based had not been expertly appraised and that Boisdeffre had "absolute confidence" in Henry. Cavaignac decided to investigate—in his office, with his assistants—and retrieved the secret file, which now contained items. The secret information had been provided by Zola, who had received it from Oscar Wilde ; Wilde had gained it from best friend Carlos Blacker, who was an intimate friend of Alexandro Panizzardi. On 7 July during a questioning in the House, Cavaignac reported three items "overwhelming among a thousand", two of which had no connection with the case.

The other was the "faux Henry". The application for annulment made by Lucie Dreyfus became admissible. The next day, Picquart declared in Le Temps to the council president, "I am in a position to establish before a court of competent jurisdiction that the two documents bearing the date of could not be attributed to Dreyfus and that the one that bears the date of had all the characteristics of a fake," which earned him eleven months in prison.

On the evening of 13 August , Cuignet, who was attached to the cabinet of Cavaignac, was working by the light of a lamp and observed that the colour of the lines on the "faux Henry" paper header and footer did not correspond with the central part of the document. Cavaignac was still trying to find logical reasons for the guilt and conviction of Dreyfus [] but was not silent on this discovery. Collusion between the General Staff and the traitor was revealed.

On 30 August Cavaignac resigned himself to demanding explanations from Colonel Henry in the presence of Boisdeffre and Gonse. After an hour of questioning by the minister himself, Henry broke down and made a full confession. The request for review filed by Lucie Dreyfus could not be rejected. Yet Cavaignac said "less than ever! Despite his apparently entirely involuntary role in the revision of the trial, Brisson remained convinced that Dreyfus was guilty and made a statement disparaging and offensive to Dreyfus at the Rennes trial. The anti-revisionists did not consider themselves beaten.

On 6 September Charles Maurras published a eulogy of Henry in La Gazette de France in which he called him a "heroic servant of the great interests of the State". In December the same newspaper launched a subscription, in favour of his widow, to erect a monument to Henry. Each gift was accompanied by pithy, often abusive, remarks on Dreyfus and the Dreyfusards.

Some 14, subscribers, [] including 53 MPs, sent , francs. The government transferred the case to the Supreme Court for its opinion on the past four years of proceedings. France was really divided into two, but no more generalization is possible: Henry was dead, Boisdeffre had resigned, Gonse had no more authority, and du Paty had been severely compromised by Esterhazy: Cavaignac, having resigned for continuing to spread his anti-Dreyfusard vision of the Affair, arose as an anti-revisionist leader.

General Zurlinden who succeeded him and was influenced by the General Staff, delivered a negative opinion at the review on 10 September comforting the extremist press by saying that, "a review means war". The obstinacy of the Government, who voted to revert to the Supreme Court on 26 September , led to the resignation of Zurlinden who was soon replaced by General Chanoine.

Ministerial instability caused some governmental instability. In he had covered the actions of General Mercier at the beginning of the Dreyfus Affair, [] and four years later he announced that he would follow the judgment of the Supreme Court, [] thus blocking the road for those who wanted to stifle the review and divest the Court.

Buy for others

On 5 December in the shadow of a debate in the House on the transmission of the "secret file" to the Supreme Court the tension rose another notch. Insults, invective, and other nationalistic violence gave way to threats of an uprising. A new crisis arose at the same time in the heart of the Supreme Court, since Quesnay de Beaurepaire, President of the Civil Chamber, accused the Criminal Chamber of Dreyfusism in the press. He resigned on 8 January as a hero of the nationalist cause. This crisis led to the divestiture of the Criminal Division in favour of joint chambers. This was the point of blockage for the review.

In the affair took up more and more of the political scene. It was a failure as it was not supported by the military. On 4 June Loubet was assaulted at the Longchamp Racecourse. These provocations plus permanent demonstrations from the extreme right, although it never actually put the Republic in danger, created a burst of Republicanism leading to the formation of a "government of republican defence" around Waldeck-Rousseau on 22 June The Dreyfus affair led to a clear reorganization of the French political landscape.

The Supreme Court considered the affair in the context of press campaigns against the Criminal Division , the magistrates being constantly dragged through the mud in nationalist newspapers from the Panama scandals. On 29 October , after the submission of the report from the recorder Alphonse Bard, the Criminal Chamber of the Court stated that "the application is admissible and will proceed with a supplementary investigation".

The recorder Louis Loew presided. He was subjected to a very violent campaign of antisemitic insults due to his being an Alsatian Protestant accused of being a deserter and tainted by the Prussians. Despite the compliant silence of Mercier, Billot, Zurlinden, and Roget, who hid behind the authority of "already judged" and "state secret", understanding of the affair increased.

Cavaignac made a statement two days long, but failed to prove the guilt of Dreyfus. On the contrary, he unwittingly exonerated him by a demonstration of the exact date of the bordereau August Picquart then demonstrated all the workings of the error, then the conspiracy. A new furiously antisemitic press campaign burst during the event, while L'Aurore on 29 October published an article entitled Victory in the same character as J'accuse!

On 9 February , the Criminal Division submitted its report by highlighting two important facts: These two major events alone destroyed all proceedings against Alfred Dreyfus. In parallel, President Mazeau conducted an inquiry by the Criminal Division, which led to divestiture thereof "to not only leave it to bear alone all responsibility for the final decision," so protecting the Criminal Division from actions arising from its report.

On 28 February , Waldeck-Rousseau spoke to the Senate on the floor and denounced "moral conspiracy" within the government and in the street. The review was no longer avoidable. He took on the legal files and decided on a further investigation. Ten additional witnesses were interviewed, which further weakened the version of the General Staff. The prosecutor Manau echoed the views of the President.

Mornard who represented Lucie Dreyfus argued without any difficulty or opposition from the prosecution. On 3 June , the joint chambers of the Supreme Court overturned the judgment of in a formal hearing. By that judgment, the Supreme Court imposed itself as an absolute authority capable of standing up to military and political power. The court, in overturning the judgement, believed in the legal autonomy of the military court without taking into account the laws of esprit de corps. Alfred Dreyfus was in no way aware of what was happening thousands of kilometres from him.

Neither was he aware of the schemes hatched that he could never return, or the commitment of countless men and women to his cause. The prison administration filtered information deemed confidential. At the end of , he learned with astonishment the actual size of the affair, about which he knew nothing: On 9 June he left Devil's Island , heading to France, but locked in a cabin as if guilty, even though he no longer was. He disembarked on 30 June in Port Haliguen on the Quiberon peninsula in the greatest secrecy, "a clandestine and nocturnal return".

He was remanded on 7 August before the military court of the Breton capital. General Mercier, champion of the anti-Dreyfusards, intervened constantly in the press to confirm the accuracy of the first judgement: Dreyfus was surely guilty. Immediately, however, dissent emerged in the defence of Dreyfus. His two lawyers actually had opposing strategies. Demange wanted to stand on the defensive and just get the acquittal of Dreyfus. Labori, a brilliant lawyer who was just 35 years old, wanted to take the offensive, to aim higher and defeat and publicly humiliate the General Staff.

Mathieu Dreyfus imagined a complementarity between the two lawyers. The conduct of the trial revealed the disunity that served the prosecution with a defence so impaired. The trial opened on 7 August in an atmosphere of extreme tension. Rennes was in a state of siege. He and du Paty were both excused.

On the appearance of Dreyfus, emotions ran high. His physical appearance disturbed his supporters and some of his opponents. They stubbornly considered null and void the confessions of Henry and Esterhazy. The trial even tended to go out of control to the extent that the decisions of the Supreme Court were not taken into account.

They discussed in particular the bordereau, which was the proof of guilt of Esterhazy. Nevertheless Mercier was booed at the end of the hearing. The nationalist press and the anti-Dreyfusards could only speculate on his silence about the "conclusive evidence" the pseudo-note annotated by the Kaiser, which nobody will ever see in evidence that he had not ceased to report before the trial. On 14 August Labori was on his way to court when he was shot in the back by an extremist who escaped and was never found. The lawyer was missing from discussions for over a week at the decisive moment of the examination of witnesses.

On 22 August his condition had improved and he returned. Incidents between the two lawyers for Dreyfus multiplied. Labori reproached Demange about his excessive caution. The Government, in the face of the military hardening stance, still had two ways to influence events: The German Embassy sent a polite refusal to the government. He asked him to act in the spirit of the revised judgment of the Supreme Court.

The officer pretended not to understand the allusion and helped the nationalist lawyer Auffray to make the indictment against Dreyfus. The defence needed to make a decision because the outcome of the case looked bad, despite evidence of the absence of charges against the accused.

They decided to risk conciliation in exchange for the acquittal that seemed to be promised by the government. Demange, alone and without illusions, continued the defence of Dreyfus in an atmosphere of civil war. In Paris the anti-Semitic and nationalist agitators of Auteuil were arrested. On 9 September the court rendered its verdict: Dreyfus was convicted of treason, but "with extenuating circumstances" by five votes to two and sentenced to ten years' imprisonment and a further degradation. Contrary to appearances, this verdict was on the verge of acquittal by one vote. The Code of Military Justice adopted the principle that a minority vote of three against four was an acquittal.

The day after the verdict, Alfred Dreyfus, after much hesitation, filed an appeal for a retrial. Waldeck-Rousseau, in a difficult position, tackled for the first time the possibility of a pardon.

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