Oaths and the English Reformation (Cambridge Studies in Early Modern British History)
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Historian Diarmaid MacCulloch in his study of The Later Reformation in England, — argues that after , "England's Reformation was characterized by its hatred of images, as Margaret Aston 's work on iconoclasm and iconophobia has repeatedly and eloquently demonstrated. In September, Cromwell issued a second set of Royal Injunctions ordering the destruction of images to which pilgrimage offerings were made, the prohibition of lighting candles before images of saints, and the preaching of sermons against the veneration of images and relics.
He once again instructed each parish to acquire an English Bible. For Cromwell and Cranmer, a step in the Protestant agenda was attacking monasticism , which was associated with the doctrine of purgatory. Between and , 18 Carthusians were killed for doing the same. The Crown was also experiencing financial difficulties, and the wealth of the church, in contrast to its political weakness, made confiscation of church property both tempting and feasible.
In , Cromwell initiated a visitation of the monasteries ostensibly to examine their character, but in fact, to value their assets with a view to expropriation. Leading reformers, led by Anne Boleyn, wanted to convert monasteries into "places of study and good letters, and to the continual relief of the poor", but this was not done.
Monks and nuns affected by closures were transferred to larger houses, and monks had the option of becoming secular clergy. The Royal Supremacy and the abolition of papal authority had not caused widespread unrest, but the attacks on monasteries and the abolition of saints' days and pilgrimages provoked violence. Mobs attacked those sent to break up monastic buildings.
Suppression commissioners were attacked by local people in several places. The Lincolnshire Rising occurred in October and culminated in a force of 40, rebels assembling at Lincoln. They demanded an end to taxation during peacetime, the repeal of the statute of uses , an end to the suppression of monasteries, and that heresy be purged and heretics punished.
Henry refused to negotiate, and the revolt collapsed as the nervous gentry convinced the common people to disperse. The Pilgrimage of Grace was a more serious matter. The revolt began in October at Yorkshire and spread to the other northern counties. Around 50, strong, the rebels under Robert Aske 's leadership restored 16 of the 26 northern monasteries that had been dissolved.
Due to the size of the rebellion, the King was persuaded to negotiate. In December, the Duke of Norfolk offered the rebels a pardon and a parliament to consider their grievances. Aske then sent the rebels home. The promises made to them, however, were ignored by the King, and Norfolk was instructed to put the rebellion down. Forty-seven of the Lincolnshire rebels were executed, and from the Pilgrimage of Grace. In Southern England , smaller disturbances took place in Cornwall and Walsingham in The failure of the Pilgrimage of Grace only sped up the process of dissolution and may have convinced Henry VIII that all religious houses needed to be closed.
In , the last monasteries were dissolved, wiping out an important element of traditional religion. Former nuns received smaller pensions and, as they were still bound by vows of chastity, forbidden to marry. According to historian Peter Marshall , Henry's religious reforms were based on the principles of "unity, obedience and the refurbishment of ancient truth.
Impatient Protestants took it upon themselves to further reform. Priests said mass in English rather than Latin and were marrying in violation of clerical celibacy. Not only were there divisions between traditionalists and reformers, but Protestants themselves were divided between establishment reformers who held Lutheran beliefs and radicals who held Anabaptist and Sacramentarian views.
Almost immediately, official religious policy began to drift in a conservative direction. A commission was swiftly created to seek out Anabaptists. Henry personally presided at the trial of John Lambert in November for denying the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist. At the same time, he shared in the drafting of a proclamation ordering Anabaptists and Sacramentaries to get out of the country or face death.
Discussion of the real presence except by those educated in the universities was forbidden, and priests who married were to be dismissed. Henry made his traditional preferences known during the Easter Triduum of , where he crept to the cross on Good Friday. On 28 June Cromwell, Henry's longtime advisor and loyal servant, was executed. Different reasons were advanced: Many other arrests under the Act followed. In a display of religious impartiality, Thomas Abell , Richard Featherstone and Edward Powell —all Roman Catholics—were hanged and quartered while the Protestants burned.
French diplomat Charles de Marillac wrote that Henry's religious policy was a "climax of evils" and that:.
Yet the government will not have either the one or the other, but insists on their keeping what is commanded, which is so often altered that it is difficult to understand what it is. Despite setbacks, Protestants managed to win some victories. Protestants could celebrate the growing access to vernacular scripture as most churches had Bibles by The King also continued to endorse the iconoclastic policies of and was angry over the North's continued attachment to shrines and pilgrimage.
Traditionalists, nevertheless, seemed to have the upper hand. By the spring of , Protestant innovations had been reversed, and only the break with Rome and the dissolution of the monasteries remained unchanged. This King's Book rejected justification by faith alone and defended traditional ceremonies and the use of images.
Henry expressed his fears to Parliament in that "the Word of God, is disputed, rhymed, sung and jangled in every ale house and tavern, contrary to the true meaning and doctrine of the same. By the spring of , the conservatives appeared to be losing influence once again. In March, Parliament made it more difficult to prosecute people for violating the Six Articles. Protestants achieved small victories with the authorisation of Cranmer's English Litany in June and a King's Primer in May , which became the only authorised prayer book in England.
While Henry's motives were largely financial England was at war with France and desperately in need of funds , the passage of the Chantries Act was "an indication of how deeply the doctrine of purgatory had been eroded and discredited". In , the conservatives were once again in the ascendent. A series of controversial sermons preached by the Protestant Edward Crome set off a persecution of Protestants that the traditionalists used to effectively target their rivals.
It was during this time that Anne Askew was tortured in the Tower of London and burnt at the stake. Even Henry's last wife, Katherine Parr , was suspected of heresy but saved herself by appealing to the King's mercy. With the Protestants on the defensive, traditionalists pressed their advantange by banning Protestant books. The conservative persecution of Queen Katherine, however, backfired.
Later, the Duke of Norfolk, the most powerful conservative nobleman, was arrested. When Henry died in , his nine-year-old son, Edward VI , inherited the throne. Edward was a precocious child who had been brought up as a Protestant, but was initially of little account politically. He was commissioned as virtual regent with near sovereign powers. Now made Duke of Somerset , he proceeded at first hesitantly, partly because his powers were not unchallenged. When he acted it was because he saw the political advantage in doing so. The injunctions against images were a more tightly drawn version of those of , but they were more fiercely enforced, at first informally, and then by instruction.
All images in churches were to be dismantled. Stained glass , shrines and statues were defaced or destroyed. Roods , and often their lofts and screens, were cut down and bells were taken down. Vestments were prohibited and either burned or sold. Chalices were melted down or sold. Processions were banned and ashes and palms were prohibited. How well this was received is disputed. Dickens contends that people had " In Cranmer introduced a Book of Common Prayer in English, which while to all appearances kept the structure of the Mass, altered the theology so that the holy gifts of consecrated bread and wine were not offered to God as a sacrifice although he was well aware that this had been the Church's doctrine since the late 2nd century it would be restored by Scottish non-Jurors of the Episcopal Church of Scotland and the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States in In stone altars were replaced by wooden communion tables, a very public break with the past, as it changed the look and focus of church interiors.
Less visible, but still influential, was the new ordinal—which provided for Protestant ministers rather than Roman Catholic priests, an admittedly conservative adaptation of Bucer's draft; [] its Preface explicitly mentions the historic succession but it has been described as " This removed the refusal of some bishops to enforce the regulations as an obstacle to change.
Henceforth, the Reformation proceeded apace. In , the prayer book—which the conservative Bishop Stephen Gardiner had approved from his prison cell as being "patient of a Catholic interpretation"—was replaced by a second, much more radical prayer book that altered the service to remove any sense that the Eucharist was a material sacrifice offered to God while keeping the belief that it was a sacrifice of thanksgiving and praise in word. Edward's Parliament also repealed his father's Six Articles.
The enforcement of the new liturgy did not always take place without a struggle. Conformity was the order of the day, but in East Anglia and in Devon there were rebellions , [] as also in Cornwall, to which many parishes sent their young men; they were put down only after considerable loss of life. In other places the causes of the rebellions were less easy to pin down, [] but by July throughout southern England, there was "quavering quiet," which burst out into "stirs" in many places, most significantly in Kett's Rebellion in Norwich.
Apart from these more spectacular pieces of resistance, in some places chantry priests continued to say prayers and landowners to pay them to do so. Opposition to the removal of images was widespread—so much so that when during the Commonwealth, William Dowsing was commissioned to the task of image breaking in Suffolk , his task, as he records it, was enormous. The effect of the resistance was to topple Somerset as Lord Protector, so that in it was feared by some that the Reformation would cease. The prayer book was the tipping point. But Lisle, now made Earl of Warwick, was made Lord President of the Privy Council and, ever the opportunist he died a public Roman Catholic , he saw the further implementation of the reforming policy as a means of defeating his rivals.
Outwardly, the destruction and removals for sale had changed the church forever. Many churches concealed their vestments and their silver, [] and had buried their stone altars. There were many disputes between the government and parishes over church property. Thus, when Edward died in July and the Duke of Northumberland attempted to have the Protestant Lady Jane Grey made Queen, the unpopularity of the confiscations gave Mary the opportunity to have herself proclaimed Queen, first in Suffolk, and then in London to the acclamation of the crowds. From , under the reign of Henry's Roman Catholic daughter, Mary I , the Reformation legislation was repealed and Mary sought to achieve the reunion with Rome.
Her first Act of Parliament was to retroactively validate Henry's marriage to her mother and so legitimise her claim to the throne. Achieving her objective was, however, not straightforward.
Cambridge Studies in Early Modern British History: Oaths and the English Reformation
Before reunion with Rome could occur, church property disputes had to be settled—which, in practice, meant letting those who had bought former church property keep it. Mary could have had Cranmer, imprisoned as he was, tried and executed for treason—he had supported the claims of Lady Jane Grey—but she resolved to have him tried for heresy.
His recantations of his Protestantism would have been a major coup. Unhappily for her, he unexpectedly withdrew his recantations at the last minute as he was to be burned at the stake, thus ruining her government's propaganda victory. If Mary was to secure England for Roman Catholicism, she needed an heir.
There was opposition, and even a rebellion in Kent led by Sir Thomas Wyatt ; even though it was provided that Philip would never inherit the kingdom if there was no heir, received no estates and had no coronation. But she never became pregnant, and likely suffered from cancer. Ironically, another blow fell. Mary refused to let him go. The support she might have expected from a grateful Pope was thus denied. After , the initial reconciling tone of the regime began to harden. The medieval heresy laws were restored.
The Marian Persecutions of Protestants ensued and Protestants were burnt at the stake for heresy. Foxe's Book of Martyrs recorded the executions in such detail that it became Mary's epitaph; Convocation subsequently ordered that Foxe's book should be placed in every cathedral in the land.
In fact, while those who were executed after the revolts of , and the St David's Down rebellion of , and the unknown number of monks who died for refusing to submit, may not have been tried for heresy, they certainly exceeded that number by some amount. Even so, the heroism of some of the martyrs was an example to those who witnessed them, so that in some places it was the burnings that set people against the regime.
There was a slow consolidation in Roman Catholic strength in Mary's latter years. Printing presses produced primers and other devotional materials, and recruitment to the English clergy began to rise after almost a decade. Repairs to long-neglected churches began. In the parishes " Moreover, Pole was determined to do more than remake the past. He insisted on scripture, teaching and education, and on improving the clergy's moral standards. It is difficult to determine how far previous reigns had broken Roman Catholic devotion, with its belief in the saints and in purgatory, but certainties—especially those that drew public financial support—had been shaken.
Benefactions to the church did not return significantly. Trust in clergy who had changed their minds and were now willing to leave their new wives—as they were required to do—was bound to have weakened. Few monasteries, chantries , and guilds were reinstated. Consequently, Protestants secretly ministering to underground congregations, such as Thomas Bentham , were planning for a long haul, a ministry of survival. Following Mary's childless death, her half-sister Elizabeth inherited the throne. One of the most important concerns during Elizabeth's early reign was religion.
Elizabeth could not be Roman Catholic, as that church considered her illegitimate. At the same time, she had observed the turmoil brought about by Edward's introduction of radical Protestant reforms. Communion with the Roman Catholic Church was again severed by Elizabeth. Chiefly she supported her father's idea of reforming the church but made some minor adjustments. In this way, Elizabeth and her advisors aimed at a church that included most opinions. Two groups were excluded.
Roman Catholics who remained loyal to the Pope after he excommunicated the Queen in would not be tolerated. They were, in fact, regarded as traitors, because the Pope had refused to accept Elizabeth as Queen of England. Roman Catholics were given the hard choice of being loyal either to their church or their country.
For some priests it meant life on the run, in some cases death for treason. The other group not to be tolerated was people who wanted reform to go much further, and who finally gave up on the Church of England. They could no longer see it as a true church. They believed it had refused to obey the Bible, so they formed small groups of convinced believers outside the church. The government responded with imprisonment and exile to try to crush these "separatists".
The Church of England itself contained three groups. Those who believed the form of the church was just what it should be included leaders like John Jewel and Richard Hooker. A second group looked for opportunities to reintroduce some Roman Catholic practices. Under the Stuart kings they would have their chance. The third group, who came to be called Puritans , wanted to remove remaining traces of the old ways. The Stuart kings were to give them a rough passage. At the end of Elizabeth's reign, the Church of England was firmly in place, but held the seeds of future conflict. Parliament was summoned in to consider the Reformation Bill and to create a new church.
The Reformation Bill defined the Communion as a consubstantial celebration as opposed to a transubstantial celebration, included abuse of the pope in the litany , and ordered that ministers meaning ordained clergy should not wear the surplice or other Roman Catholic vestments. It allowed the clergy — deacons, priests and bishops — to marry, banned images from churches, and confirmed Elizabeth as Supreme Governor of the Church of England.
The Bill met heavy resistance in the House of Lords , as Roman Catholic bishops as well as the lay peers voted against it. They reworked much of the Bill, changed the litany to allow for a transubstantial belief in the Communion and refused to grant Elizabeth the title of Supreme Head of the Church.
Parliament was prorogued over Easter, and when it resumed, the government entered two new bills into the Houses—the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity.
This Act made null and void with certain specific exceptions the Marian act of that had repealed all Henry VIII's legislation from onwards, which had denied the authority of the See of Rome [] and also confirmed Elizabeth as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Supreme Governor was a suitably equivocal title that made Elizabeth head of the Church without ever saying she was. This was important for two reasons: For the clergy, all but a few were ordained with the Roman Rite, Elizabeth's changes were more wholesale than those of her half-brother, Edward, had been.
All but one Anthony Kitchin of the bishops lost their posts, a hundred fellows of Oxford colleges were deprived; many dignitaries resigned rather than take the oath. The bishops who were removed from the ecclesiastical bench were replaced by appointees who would agree to the reforms. Since the government was concerned that continuity of Orders continue without a break Mathew Parker was consecrated Archbishop of Canterbury by two bishops who had been consecrated in the mids using the Pontifical Barlow and Hodgkins and two with the English Ordinal of Scory and Coverdale who were consecrated on the same day by Cranmer, Ridley and Hodgkins who were consecrated in , and using the Pontifical.
On the question of images, Elizabeth's initial reaction was to allow crucifixes and candlesticks and the restoration of roods, but some of the new bishops whom she had elevated protested. In Edmund Grindal , one of the Marian exiles now made Bishop of London , was allowed to enforce the demolition of rood lofts in London and in the Queen herself ordered the demolition of all lofts.
The queen also appointed a new Privy Council , removing many Roman Catholic counsellors by doing so. Under Elizabeth, factionalism in the Council and conflicts at court greatly diminished. The Act of Supremacy was passed without difficulty. The Act of Uniformity , which forced people to attend Sunday service in a parish church with a new version of the Book of Common Prayer , passed by only three votes. It revoked the harsh laws proposed against Roman Catholics, it removed the abuse of the pope from the litany and kept the wording that allowed for an interpretation of the real presence of Christ in the Eucharist without making any declaration about the matter transubstantion is actually condemned in the Thirty-Nine Articles.
The 'theory' most agreeable to Anglican opinion for centuries without every being official as there never had been one on the issue was that Christ is truly present but after a spiritual manner i. The Church of England as dictated to by the government became content to define Catholicity as adherence to the first Four Ecumenical Councils as seen in the historic Creeds, and the teachings of the Church Fathers and Catholic Bishops the Injunctions of Scripture, and Tradition.
It would not be a Confessional Church based on the writings of a charismatic leader nor have a magisterium as in the Papacy. Instead in light of Hooker's writings there would be reason as the authority to act, continuity over Reformation divide and hospitality to sacramental modes of thought, [] in particular the place of the Incarnation. These were additions to the settlement, and largely stressed continuity with the Catholic past — clergy were ordered to wear the surplice and the use of the cope was allowed in cathedrals and collegiate chapels — especially since all the clergy upon her accession the throne were Roman Catholic.
Men were ordained to the three traditional orders of deacon, priest and bishop and so referred to in the Prayer Book Rites. The Ornaments Rubric states that the ornaments of the church and ministers thereof shall remain as they were in the second year of the reign of Edward VI, i.
Wafers, as opposed to ordinary baker's bread, were to be used as the bread at Communion. Communion would be taken kneeling. The Black Rubric denied the real and essential presence of Christ in the consecrated elements but allowed kneeling as long as this act did not imply adoration. The Queen had it removed. There had been opposition to the settlement in rural England, which for the most part was largely Roman Catholic, so the changes aimed for acceptance of the settlement. What succeeded more than anything else was the sheer length of Elizabeth's reign; while Mary had been able to impose her programme for a mere five years, Elizabeth had forty-five.
Those who delayed, "looking for a new day" when restoration would again be commanded, were defeated by the passing of years. Elizabeth's reign saw the emergence of Puritanism , which encompassed those Protestants who, whilst they agreed that there should be one national church, felt that the church had been but partially reformed. Puritanism ranged from hostility to the content of the Prayer Book and "popish" ceremony, to a desire that church governance be radically reformed.
Grindal was made Archbishop of Canterbury in and chose to oppose even the Queen in his desire to forward the Puritan agenda. He ended a 6,word reproach to her with, "Bear with me, I beseech you Madam, if I choose rather to offend your earthly majesty than to offend the heavenly majesty of God. Grindal's successor, Archbishop Whitgift , more reflected the Queen's determination to discipline those who were unprepared to accept her settlement.
A conformist, he imposed a degree of obedience on the clergy that apparently alarmed even the Queen's ministers, such as Lord Burghley. The pseudonymous " Martin Marprelate " tracts, which attacked conformist clergy with a libellous humorous tone, outraged senior Puritan clergy and set the government on an unsuccessful attempt to run the writer to earth. On the other side, there were still huge numbers of Roman Catholics. Some conformed, bending with the times, hoping that there would be a fresh reverse.
Vestments were still hidden, golden candlesticks bequeathed, chalices kept. The Mass was still celebrated in some places [] alongside the new Communion service but was more difficult than before. Both Roman Catholic priests and laity lived a double life, apparently conforming, but avoiding taking the oath of conformity. Only as time passed did recusancy—refusal to attend Protestant services—became more common. Jesuits and seminary priests, trained in Douai and Rome to make good the losses of English priests, encouraged this. By the s, an underground church was growing fast as the Church of England became more Protestant and less bearable for Roman Catholics who were still a sizeable minority.
It was a botched attempt; in spite of tumultuous crowds who greeted the rebels in Durham , the rebellion did not spread. The assistance they sought did not materialise, their communication with allies at Court was poor. They came nowhere near to freeing Mary Stuart , whose presence might have rallied support, from her imprisonment in Tutbury. The Roman Catholic Church's refusal to countenance occasional attendance at Protestant services, as well as the excommunication of Elizabeth by Pope Pius V in , presented the choice to Roman Catholics more starkly.
The arrival of the seminary priests, while it was a lifeline to many Roman Catholics, brought further trouble. Elizabeth's ministers took steps to stem the tide: Because the papacy had called for the deposing of the Queen, the choice for moderate Roman Catholics lay between treason and damnation.
The List of Catholic martyrs of the English Reformation was extensive. There is some distance between legislation and its enforcement. The governmental attacks on recusancy were mostly upon the gentry. Few recusants were actually fined; the fines that were imposed were often at reduced rates; the persecution eased; priests came to recognise that they should not refuse communion to occasional conformists.
The huge number of Roman Catholics in East Anglia and the North in the s disappeared into the general population in part because recusant priests largely served the great Roman Catholic houses, which alone could hide them. Roman Catholicism, supported by foreign or expatriate priests, came to be seen as treasonous. By the time of Elizabeth's death a third party had emerged, "perfectly hostile" to Puritans but not adherent to Rome.
It preferred the revised Book of Common Prayer of , which was without some of the matters offensive to Roman Catholics. The new dispute was now between the Puritans who wished to see an end of the prayer book and episcopacy , and this third party the considerable body of people who looked kindly on the Elizabethan Settlement, who rejected prophesyings , whose spirituality had been nourished by the Prayer Book and who preferred the governance of bishops.
It was between these two groups that, after Elizabeth's death in , a new, more savage episode of the Reformation was in the process of gestation. During the reigns of the Stuart kings, James I and Charles I , the battle lines were to become more defined, leading ultimately to the English Civil War , the first on English soil to engulf parts of the civilian population. The war was only partly about religion, but the abolition of prayer book and episcopacy by a Puritan Parliament was an element in the causes of the conflict.
As historian MacCulloch has noted, the legacy of these tumultuous events can be recognised, throughout the Commonwealth —60 and the Restoration that followed it, and beyond. The answer depends on what you think the English Reformation was. Here are some of the possibilities.
This history of the Tudor dynasty may not be exactly coterminous with that of the English Reformation, but they are close enough to be folded together. That is not an inherently implausible narrative, but it is one which has been left almost without defenders by a generation of research into the late medieval English Church.
The patient, indeed, seems to have been in tolerably cheerful health, a few chronic aches and pains aside, right up to the point where it was first infected with a novel and virulent strain of heresy and then, very shortly afterwards, abruptly beheaded.
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Nor does Tyndale stand alone, for this is the first year we begin to see signs that the Lutheran infection to which a few English people had been exposed could actually take hold. And, like Luther and the Wittenberg door, this is marked by a persistent and ill-founded myth: Such an English Reformation would, of course, likely have been a modest and short-lived affair.
Victory in this battle would not have been immediate, but we can hardly doubt that it would have come, and that the evanescent English Reformation would have gone the way of, for example, its Italian counterpart: And it would of course be wholly a historical construct. I know of no evidence that anyone in believed that it was a turning-point, nor indeed that anyone identified it as such while the year was still within reach of living memory.
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For the first two years of the crisis, the smart money would have bet that Cardinal Wolsey would have found some way of resolving it to at least the minimal satisfaction of all concerned. First, and perhaps most significantly, it was recognised as such by contemporaries. Third, this procedural development was matched by an ideological one.
Richard Rex has argued persuasively that at some point during the winter of — and perhaps sooner rather than later — Henry VIII experienced what amounted to a religious conversion. Yet he was crucially enabled by Protestants, who provided him with vital diplomatic cover and political supporters as well as with many of the building-blocks he used to construct his own ideology.
It produced a liturgical and homiletic tradition with a great deal to say about obedience and the evils of rebellion, but a ringing silence about tyranny. Even when royal power was extinguished after the Civil War, it ensured that the new parliamentary establishment would block any attempt to set up a genuinely independent Presbyterian church. It is not just a matter of changes to taxation.
A serious attempt really was made to administer the succession oath to the entire adult male population, an event with enduring political significance. The restoration of papal authority was very much on the agenda of the rebels of But the genuinely epoch-making event was the one which ties the injunctions and the rebellion together: The dissolution has a peculiar place in the recent historiography of the English Reformation: The stale debate about premeditation versus accidental stumbling seems mercifully to have died away, but we have yet to have a new wave of serious studies of its impact.
What is at least clear is that in the English folk memory, it was this event more than any other which marked the defining rupture of the Reformation for generations to come: Not including those Anglicans who might want to root their identity above all in the Book of Common Prayer, and who would undoubtedly choose to mark the stopgap book of rather than its far more influential replacement in For evangelicals who had found their alliance with Henry VIII becoming increasingly unholy, the ability finally to promulgate their doctrines unhindered was an immense relief, and a sharp line was to be drawn between their young Josiah and the inconsistent, unpredictable and murderous Hezekiah who had sired him.
John Foxe was apparently genuinely uncertain as to whether Henry was now in Heaven or Hell. Bishop Stephen Gardiner was the most articulate proponent of this view; the Cornish rebels of , who called for the clock to be put back to , not or , were the most forceful. It was the Six Articles, not the papacy, which many Edwardian conservatives wanted to restore.
Likewise, we can even more easily imagine the counterfactual in which the Marian restoration of came to be remembered as the point when the English Reformation was over bar the burning. But since the lottery of royal births and deaths in fact threw up a different result, we are forced to contemplate the possibility that the English Reformation really began in the year it was conventionally said to have ended: Yet there are three grounds on which the case could be made.
The liturgies drawn up in , and sedulously avoided any commemoration of the events of the Reformation, even as their calendars were filled with other historical events of various vintages. Of course, this was a lesson which ceased being promulgated on her death: For if the Church of England as an independent institution in some ways tracks back to , its continuous history the hiccup of aside dates from
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