Mongolia- A Brief History

History of Mongolia

---

Shortly thereafter, a new party was formed by former president Enkhbayar, which confusingly adopted for itself the MPRP name. Following the parliamentary elections, a coalition of four political parties was formed but then dissolved in November when Prime Minister Altankhuyag was voted out of office. A new five-party grand coalition was formed in December under the leadership of Prime Minister Saikhanbileg. There is no evidence as yet that early hominids settled in Mongolia, most likely because of the inhospitable terrain and climate.

Most of Mongolia is high above sea level; much of the western, northern, and central part is mountainous; the rest is taken up by the Gobi Desert. It is a dry climate, with extremely cold, windy winters; parts of Mongolia experience hot summers. Thereafter the evidence of human settlement in Mongolia is scant. Bowman, , Columbia University Press]. In the Stone Age, during occasional subtropical periods that lasted for around 10, years or less, hyenas and lions roamed parts of Central Asia. Around 40, years ago, it is thought, humans reached the steppes of Central Asia and pushed on into Siberia.

There is evidence of human habitation on the northern Yana River in Siberia dated to 30, years ago. Caves in the Altay region of Russia, Mongolia and Kazakhstan have been used possibly as far back as , year ago. The world's oldest known sculpture is an animal head carved in wooly rhinoceros vertebrae. Found in Tombaga Siberia, it is 34, years old. It is thought the first settlers of Mongolia were related to the Siberian people that crossed the Bering Strait into America.

See Early History, Japan. Period of Northern Wei Dynasty, established by the Toba in: Most Khalkha Mongols accept suzerainty of Manchus, absorbed: Mongolian People's Republic proclaimed; Soviet style state: Mongolian-Soviet "gentlemen's agreement" allows Soviet troops into Mongolia. Treaty of Friendship and Mutual Assistance and Agreement on: Economic and Cultural Cooperation signed with Soviet Union. Jambyn Batmonh becomes chairman of Council of Ministers; Tsedenbal becomes chairman of the Presidium of the People's Great Hural and continues as party first secretary.

Soviet Union announces intention to withdraw one of five Soviet divisions stationed in Mongolia. This site contains copyrighted material the use of which has not always been authorized by the copyright owner. Such material is made available in an effort to advance understanding of country or topic discussed in the article. This constitutes 'fair use' of any such copyrighted material as provided for in section of the US Copyright Law. In accordance with Title 17 U. Section , the material on this site is distributed without profit. If you wish to use copyrighted material from this site for purposes of your own that go beyond 'fair use', you must obtain permission from the copyright owner.

If you are the copyright owner and would like this content removed from factsanddetails. Geographical Influence on the the Mongols The Mongol character has been greatly influenced by the extremes of Mongolia's geography, comprising huge rolling plateaus, rugged mountain ranges, and areas susceptible to earthquakes. Mongol Influence on the World Mongolia and the Mongol people have periodically been at the center of international events.

Brief History of Mongolia Date of Independence: Bowman, , Columbia University Press] In the Stone Age, during occasional subtropical periods that lasted for around 10, years or less, hyenas and lions roamed parts of Central Asia.

Iron weapons in use; Xiongnu invasion of China repulsed. Nomads expand west; pressure on China continues. Renewed attacks on China. Xianbei conquer northern China. Tangut Western Xia Dynasty, established in northwestern China. Jurchen establish Jin Dynasty in Manchuria, northern China. Jurchen defeat Mongols in Pamirs. Temujin unites Mongols, assumes title of Chinggis Khan. Mongols conquer south to Beijing, west to Lake Balkash. Southwest Asia conquered; invasion of Europe and China. Capital rebuilt at Karakorum.

Expedition into Europe that was halted at Vienna with death: Suzerainty over Russia established by Golden Horde: Conquest of Song China. Mongols defeated by Egyptian Mamluks. Khubilai becomes great khan. Unsuccessful attempts at invasion of Japan. Yuan Dynasty established in China. Yuan Dynasty destroyed; Mongols driven back into Mongolia. Chinese troops destroy Karakorum. Timur defeats Golden Horde.

Mongolia After the Mongol Period The Khitans were an ethnic group whose language was related to the Mongolic languages. Its ruler Ambagyan founded the Khitan Liao dynasty in The Liao dynasty covered a significant portion of what is now Mongolia including the basins of the three rivers Kherlen , Tuul and Orkhon. The Khitans occupied the areas vacated by the Turkic Uyghurs bringing them under their control. The Liao dynasty soon grew strong and occupied parts of Northern China, including the modern-day Beijing.

By the middle of the 10th century, Khitan chieftains had established themselves as emperors of northern China; their rule was known as the Liao dynasty. The Khitan built cities and exerted dominion over their agricultural subjects as a means of consolidating their empire. The territory of the empire consisted of two parts: The two parts of the empire actively traded with each other.

Brief History

Lubugu, a grandson of Ambagyan, and a scholar named Tulyubu developed a Grand Alphabet based on the Chinese hieroglyphics in A printing technology developed in the Liao territory. The Khitan language was widely studied abroad. A Tungusic people , the Jurchen , ancestors of the Manchu , formed an alliance with the Song dynasty and reduced the Liao dynasty to vassal status in a seven-year war — The Jurchen leader proclaimed himself the founder of a new era, the Jin dynasty — Scarcely pausing in their conquests, the Jurchen subdued neighboring Goryeo Korea in [citation needed] and invaded the territory of their former allies, the Song, to precipitate a series of wars with China that continued through the remainder of the century.

The Liao dynasty fell in and some Khitans fled west after their defeat by the Jurchens and founded the Qara Khitai — in present-day Xinjiang and eastern Kazakhstan with capital in Balasagun , near modern Tokmok , Kyrgyzstan. In addition, the Western Liao also controlled some highly autonomous vassalized states, such as Khwarezm , the Eastern and the Western Kara-Khanids , etc.

A confederation of tribes under the name Mongol was known from the 8th century. Some Shiwei tribes, though little is known, have been considered the ancestors of the Mongols according to ancient Chinese records. Term "Shiwei" was an umbrella term of the Mongolic and Tungusic peoples in the 6th to 12th centuries. They may have been divided into five to twenty tribes. They were said to be dressed in fish skins.

They may have been nomadic, staying in the marshy lowlands in the winter and the mountains during the summer. The burial was by exposure in trees. Their language is described as being similar to Manchu-Tungusic languages and Khitan. The Turkic Khaganate installed tuduns, or governors over the Shiwei and collected tribute.

Other Shiwei may have stayed and become the Evenks. The Kitans conquered the Shiwei during the late 9th century. The confederations of core Mongol tribes were transforming into a statehood in the early 12th century and came to be known as the Khamag Mongol confederacy. The people of Mongolia at this time were predominantly spirit worshipers, with shamans providing spiritual and religious guidance to the people and tribal leaders.

The Khamag Mongols occupied one of the most fertile areas of the country—the basins of the rivers Onon , Kherlen and Tuul in the Khentii mountains. Khabul Khan successfully repelled the invasions of Jin dynasty. He was succeeded by Ambaghai Khan from Taichuud tribe. Ambagai was captured by the Tatars while he came to deliver his daughter as a bride to the Tatar confederacy and was given to the Jurchens of Jin dynasty who cruelly executed him, nailing to a "wooden donkey".

Ambagai was succeeded by Hotula Khan , son of Khabul Khan. Hotula Khan engaged in 13 battles with the Tatars endeavouring to avenge Ambagai Khan. Khamag Mongol was unable to elect a khan after Hotula died. However, Khabul's grandson Yesukhei baghatur was a major chief of Khamag Mongol. Yesukhei was poisoned by the Tatars in when his eldest son Temujin was 9 years old. Shortly after Yesukhei died, Targudai of Taichuud moved away with the subjects of Yesukhei, leaving young Temujin, his mother and his younger siblings without support.

Hence, Khamag Mongol remained in political crisis until In the 12th century the Khamag Mongol Khanate , Tatar confederation , Keraite Khanate , Merkit confederation , Naiman Khanate were five major Mongolic tribal confederations and khanates in the Mongolian plateau.

The Tatar confederacy first appeared in recorded history in The Tatars became subjects of the Khitan in the 10th century. After the fall of the Khitan empire, the Tatars experienced pressure from the Jin dynasty and were urged to fight against the other Mongol tribes. The Tatars lived on the fertile pastures around the lakes Hulun and Buir and occupied a trade route to China. The Keraites between the mountain ranges of Khangai and Khentii were centered on the site of today's city Ulaanbaatar in the willow groves of the Tuul river. Markus was khan of the Keraites in the 12th century.

Markus was succeeded by Tooril khan. In his feud with his brothers for the throne of the Keraites, he was repeatedly aided by Yesukhei Bagatur of Khamag Mongol. The Mergid confederacy was located in the basin of the river Selenge. The Naiman confederacy was situated between the mountain ranges of Altai and Khangai. The Ongut tribes lived at the north of Gobi. Other tribes were Olkhunut , Bayud , Khongirad , Oirats and so forth. While most of the Mongolian tribes were Shamanists , Nestorian Christianity was practiced in a number of confederations such as Keraites and Ongut.

Temujin — defeated and subjugated the " Three Mergids " in with the support of Tooril Khan of Kereit, the blood brother of his father. Another ally who helped Temujin in this venture was his own blood brother Jamukha of Jadaran clan. The striving of Temujin to free his wife became a reason for the campaign against the Mergids. After the defeat of the Mergid, the reputation of Temujin rose rapidly and the leading members of the Khamag Mongol aristocracy enthroned him with title Chinggis Khan Genghis Khan , as the ruler of Khamag Mongol.

It is speculated to be an ancient form of the word " Tenggis "—ocean, sea. A conflict of the Tatars with the Jin dynasty became a favorable opportunity for Temujin and Tooril Khan to defeat them in alliance with the Jurchens. By the year , the Taichuud and Jurkhin tribes were defeated and subjugated.

Influential aristocrats of many other tribes and confederations were joining Temujin. Wang Khan regained power in his kingdom with the support of Temujin. Temujin finally defeated and subjugated the Tatars in Nilha childish Sengum , son of Wang Khan, envied Temujin as his power was growing and persuaded his father to battle against Temujin. This venture led to a victory of Temujin and conquest of the Kereit Khanlyk.

Wang Khan escaped alone into the southern deserts of the Naiman khanlig, where he was caught by the Naiman patrols, who killed him irritated as he claimed himself as Wang Khan. Tayan khan of Naiman and his son Kuchlug initiated a campaign against Temujin in They allied with Jamukha, who competed with Temujin for the power over the Mongolic tribes. The Naiman troops outnumbered the Temujin's troops.

At night at the eve of the battle, Temujin ordered each of his warrior to light ten bonfires, thus deceiving and demoralising Tayan khan, who was a weak warlord. Temujin won the battle. Tayan khan was captured but died of his wound, Kuchlug retreated to the river Irtysh where he was overtaken by Temujin and defeated. As the Khanlyk of Naiman was conquered, Khasar , brother of Temujin, found a dignitary named Tata Tunga , who spread the Uigur alphabet among the Mongols.

This alphabet became the basis of the Classical Mongol script. By , all the tribes and confederations of Mongolian steppe had come under the leadership of Temujin. The success of Temujin in consolidation of the Mongols was due to his flexibility, his cherishing of his friends and his elaborated tactics. The Mongol Empire and the states that emerged from it played a major role in the history of the 13th and 14th centuries.

Brief History of Mongolia:

Genghis Khan and his immediate successors conquered nearly all of Asia and European Russia and sent armies as far as central Europe and Southeast Asia. Genghis Khan abolished the organization of the former tribes and confederations and reformed the country into 95 mingats. In this system, a group of households large enough to mobilize ten warriors was organized into an arbatu , 10 arbatus were organized into a zagutu warriors , 10 zagutus constituted a mingat 1, warriors and 10 mingats constituted a tumetu or tumen 10, warriors.

This decimal system was a long-tested system that had been inherited from the period of the Xiongnu. With an assumption that each household consisted of four persons and every adult male was a warrior, it can be estimated that the entire population of Mongolia was at least , people and the nation possessed 95, cavalrymen. The newly unified Great Mongol State became an attractive force for many neighbouring peoples and kingdoms. Beginning from , the Uighur state, Taiga people of the river Yenisey and the Karluk kingdom joined Mongolia. The urgent task of Genghis Khan was strengthening the independence of his young nation.

For a century, the southeastern neighbour Jin dynasty had been provoking the Mongolic tribes against one another in order to eventually subjugate them. With a purpose of testing the military strength of his state and preparing for a struggle against the Jin dynasty, Genghis Khan conquered the Tangut empire Xi-Xia , which pledged vassalage. In the year, Mongolia, with over 90, cavalrymen, started a war with the Jin dynasty which had a multi-million population. The "Altan Golden Khaan" Jin Emperor surrendered in and gave Genghis Khan his princess and tribute of gold and silver to his warlords.

Genghis Khan gave out to his warriors the tribute of the Jin Emperor loaded on horses. However, the Jin dynasty continued hostility against Mongolia, hence Genghis Khan ordered his warlord Guo Wang Mukhulai of the Jalair clan to complete the conquest of the Jin dynasty and returned to Mongolia. His power was weak as he, a Buddhist, persecuted the indigenous Muslim population.

Genghis Khan intended to develop friendly relations with the Khwarezm Empire, which was on a junction of the trade routes connecting the East and the West and dominated Central Asia , Iran and Afghanistan. Genghis Khan considered himself a supreme ruler of the East and Khwarezm Shah a supreme ruler of the West. Khwarezm Shah had an opposite view that there should be only one ruler on earth as there is only one sun in the sky.

The execution of envoys and tradesmen of Genghis Khan by Khwarezm Shah was an announcement of war. The Mongol troops invaded Khwarezm Empire in Although Khwarezm Shah possessed an army outnumbering the Mongol troops dozen of times, he lacked the courage and initiatives to unite his forces and fight back. Shah's warlord Temur-Melik led a daring resistance when the Mongol troops besieged city of Khujand.

Shah's son Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu courageously battled with the Mongol army in , but was defeated and escaped to the river Ind. Pursuing Khwarezm Shah in , the scout groups of warlords Jebe and Subedei bagathur of Uriankhai clan conquered northern Iran. The Kipchaks allied with the troops of the principalities of Rus gave battle to the 30, cavalrymen of Jebe and Subedei on the river Kalka in May , but were defeated and were chased up to the river Dnieper.

The Tangut kingdom denied its obligation as a vassal state to take part in the western campaign of Genghis Khan. The Tangut kingdom completely surrendered in March The year conquests of Genghis Khan resulted in the formation of the Mongol Empire. The Congress of nobility known as Kurultai enthroned Ogedei , who had been nominated by Genghis Khan. Karakorum had been a military garrison of Genghis Khan since The existence of 12 Buddhist temples , 2 Muslim mosques and 1 Christian church in city Karakorum indicates the tolerance of the Mongols to all religions.

A SHORT HISTORY OF MONGOLIA

The construction of the city was supervised by Otchigin , the youngest brother of Genghis Khan. The system connected the various regions of the whole Empire. Ogedei Khan settled down the rebellions in the countries conquered during his father and led an army himself to put down a revolt in Korea. Ogedei Khan completed the conquest of the Jin dynasty in — He sent princes headed by Batu , son of Zuchi , to the west, and they conquered the Bulgar kingdom on the Volga river and 14 principalities of Rus in —, invaded the principalities of Poland, the kingdom of Kingdom of Hungary, Moravia then part of the Holy Roman Empire , and the area of Moldavia in — and approached the Adriatic sea.

After his year reign, Ogedei Khan died in under suspicious circumstances. A rivalry for the throne began between the faction of the houses of Zuchi and Tului on one side and the faction of the houses of Chagatai and Ogedei on the other side. Guyug Khan died in The traveller from Italy Giovanni da Pian del Carpine arrived in and later he wrote the book Historia Mongolorum quos nos Tartaros appellamus. Hulagu completed the conquest of Iran in and conquered Baghdad , Caucasus and Syria in — Willem van Ruysbroeck of Flanders arrived in and later wrote his account Itinerarium fratris Willielmi de Rubruquis de ordine fratrum Minorum, Galli, Anno gratia ad partes Orientales.

The Mongol Empire had an establishing effect on the social, cultural and economic life of the inhabitants of the vast Eurasian territory in the 13th and 14th centuries. It enabled exchange of knowledge, inventions and culture between the West and East. This epoch is called Pax Mongolica. In Mongolia, the legacy of Genghis Khan was a superior law code, a written language, and a historical pride. The establishment of the Yuan dynasty — by Kublai Khan accelerated the fragmentation of the Mongol Empire.

The Mongol Empire fractured into four khanates including the Yuan dynasty in China and Mongolia, and the three western khanates, i. Buddhism became the de facto state religion of the Mongol Yuan state. In , Kublai Khan commissioned Phagpa lama to design a new writing system to unify the writing systems of the multilingual empire. The 'Phags-pa script , also known as the "Square script", was based on the Tibetan script and written vertically from top was designed to write in Mongolian , Tibetan , Chinese , Uighur and Sanskrit languages and served as the official script of the empire.

Navigation menu

Kublai Khan announced the establishment of the Yuan dynasty in The Yuan dynasty included Mongolia homeland, the territories of the former Jin and Song dynasties and some adjacent territories such as a major part of southern Siberia. Kublai established a government with institutions resembling the ones in earlier Chinese dynasties such as the Zhongshu Sheng to lead the civil administration in the Yuan realm, yet at the same time introduced a hierarchy of reliability by dividing the subjects of the Yuan dynasty into 4 ranks.

The highest rank included the Mongols, the second rank included the peoples to the west of Mongolia, the third rank included the subjects of the former Jin dynasty such as Northern Chinese, the Khitans and Jurchens, and the lowest rank comprised the subjects of the former Song dynasty such as the Han ethnic group in South China. As for Mongolia itself, since the Mongolian Plateau is where the ruling Mongols of the Yuan dynasty came from, it enjoyed a somewhat special status during the Mongol Yuan dynasty, although the capital of the dynasty had been moved from Karakorum to Khanbaliq modern Beijing since the beginning of Kublai Khan's reign, and Mongolia had been turned into a province known as the Lingbei Branch Secretariat by the early 14th century.

Mongolia homeland became the ruling center of the Northern Yuan dynasty which would last until the 17th century. By the Mongols who established the Yuan dynasty a century ago had been expelled from China to Mongolia. The Ming dynasty founded by native Chinese began aggressions against Mongolia-based Northern Yuan from the year Ming army invaded Mongolia again in and looted Karakorum and other cities, but the invasions of Mongolia by Ming armies in and were expelled.

Nevertheless, Yuan royalists in Yunnan had surrendered to the Ming dynasty by the early s. Naghachu , a Mongol commander of Ayushiridara in Liaoyang province , invaded Liaodong with aims of restoring the Yuan dynasty. However, he, along with his troops sized about , finally surrendered to the Ming dynasty in —88 after a successful diplomacy of the latter. In response, the Yongle Emperor of Ming China personally invaded Mongolia in , , , , and Mongols remained powerful even after the fall of the Yuan dynasty but number of the Mongols decreased due to the fall of the Mongol Empire, wars and assimilation turkization.

As the Ming dynasty understood its own disability of conquering Mongolia by military force, it started a policy of provoking the groups of Mongols to quarrel with one another, as well as economic blockade. A long period of feudal separatism and rivalry for the Khan's throne started in Mongolia by the early 15th century. The military strength of the Mongols during the Yuan dynasty was that they were able to mobilize an army of , warriors 40 tumens. Assuming that an average household consisted of 4 people and every adult man was a warrior, it can be estimated that the Mongol population in the Yuan dynasty counted at least 1,, people.

However, the amount of 40 tumens remained only in the name of the Mongols after the fall of the Yuan dynasty as only 6 tumens were able to retreat to Mongolia and the remaining 34 tumens were lost to the Chinese Ming dynasty. These 6 tumens were grouped into the 3 tumens of the left wing ruled by the Mongol Khan and the 3 tumens of the right wing ruled by Jinong , vassal of the Khan. There were about , Mongols staying in South China and many of these Mongols who were unable to retreat to Mongolia were killed by the Chinese. The Oirats constituted another 4 tumens.

By the 15th century the Oirats occupied the Altay Mountains region. The Oirats were ruled by a Taishi who was a vassal of the Khan. The first half of the 15th century saw a rivalry of Oirat Taishis for the throne of the Khan and the second half of the 15th century saw a separatist movement of the Taishis in the right wing tumens.

In the late 14th century Mongolia was divided into two parts: Western Mongolian Oirats and Eastern Mongolian Khalkhas vied for domination in Mongolia since the 14th century and this conflict weakened Mongolian strength. Togoon died in and his son Esen Taish became prime minister.

Togoon Taishi of Oirat eventually increased his power in the Mongol court and these achievements were tightened under his successor Esen Taishi. Mongolia was effectively unified under the power of the Oirat Taishi. Esen Taishi led active diplomatic exchanges with Ming China to achieve favorable trading conditions.

When diplomacy failed to reach the goal, he led a military campaign in , in which a , Ming army was defeated by a 20, Oirat army, the Ming Emperor was captured and Beijing was besieged. Shortly after this event Esen Taishi defeated the nominal Khan Togtobuh in their conflict and became a self-declared Khan. During his retreat, Togtobuh was caught and assassinated by his ex-father-in-law for an earlier humiliation of his daughter as she was divorced and returned to her parents.

The reign of Esen Taishi was short, less than a year—his rivals rebelled and overthrew him in The Khalkha emerged during the reign of Dayan Khan — as one of the six tumens of the Eastern Mongolic peoples. They quickly became the dominant Mongolic clan in Mongolia proper. Since then, the Mongol Khans resided in Chaharia up to As he grew up, Bodi Alagh claimed back his throne and the Jinong yielded. The right wings rivaled with the Oirats for possession of Upper Mongolia Qinghai and Altan Khan, who appointed his son as a ruler of Upper Mongolia Kukunor , defeated the Oirats in Altan Khan attacked Ming China, but he stopped the raids in , and signed a peace treaty with the Ming court.

Altan Khan established the city of Hohhot in Abtai Sain Khan , the ruler of Khalkha, conquered the Oirats in the s, but the latter rebelled in The Oirats, in turn, were busy in struggle with Moghulistan for trade routes. Buyan's grandson Ligden ascended the throne in He initiated translation of major Buddhist scriptures into the Mongolian language. By his time, the authority of the Mongolian Khan had declined to such a degree that Legdan Hutuhtu Khan came to be known as "Khan of Chaharia". The failure of his attempts of unification of Mongolia by peaceful means led him to shift to forceful methods.

However, this in turn alienated the local lords of Inner Mongolia from him even farther. The striving of the Mongols to improve their life led naturally to an increase in the number of their livestock. In the extensive livestock husbandry , on which the medieval Mongolian economy was based, an excess number of livestock required either expansion of the pastures , which may imply conquest of new territories, or exchange of the excess animals and livestock products for products of settled civilizations unavailable in the unsophisticated Mongolian economy.

For example, they would be able to wear clothes made of hides and wool in cold seasons, but would certainly need clothes from silk or light fabric in summer. However, the ban on trade with the Mongols by the Ming administration was a reason for armed conflicts. Moreover, there were frequent attempts to offer low prices for the livestock products or to supply low quality reject goods to the Mongols. Thus in protest, there were cases that Mongol traders burned their reject Chinese purchases in front of the Ming officials during the rule of Esen.

Also the Ming administration often issued extremely low import quotas for trade. They banned selling metal products to the Mongols in suspicion that metal would be remoulded into weapons; however, metal products such as kettles were vitally important in the every day life of the herders.

The Geography of Mongolia

Cities in Mongolia were completely destroyed during Chinese raids in the late 14th and early 15th centuries. Some attempts of diversification of the economy were undertaken in the 16th and 17th centuries in peripheral Mongol domains but not in Northern Khalkha. The Turkic people were not only skilled at animal husbandry and metalworking, but also in growing wheat. It was the Kidan tribe, who took control of all Mongolia in A.

History of Mongolia - Wikipedia

Many cities and communities were erected by the Uigurs and Kidans in the th Century A. D when several tribes invaded the region at the same time. Control of the region was now fragmented and confused. From this chaos and confusion arose the united Mongol Empire of Chingis Khan. His father began the process and the son completed it.

The son fought and won 35 battles in Mongolia, so uniting all 81 differing tribes by A. D when he was crowned as Chingis Khan. United under his banner, with the advantage of highly mobile cavalry, the Mongols swept into power across much of China and reached the edge ofWestern Europe. The momentum continued after his death, an invincible combination of Mongolian cavalry and recruited foot soldiers using novel methods of military strategy, battle tactics, superior weapons, and by these means created the largest land empire the World has ever seen, before or since.

After centuries of domination, the Mongol Empire began to fall apart in A. More than years later, as a result of the Mongolian national movement for independence, the Mongol Monarchy was re established in

• Sans haine et sans crainte : Journal dune jurée dassises (Documents, Actualités, Société) (French Edition)
• SCIMMIA CHATS Adult Humour (Italian Edition)
• Teaching Challenging Texts: Fiction, Non-fiction, and Multimedia
• Learn Mandarin Chinese: Basic words and phrases to get you started
• Happy peasant from Album für die Jugend - Score