Personal Finances the gold of knowledge of all times (Chinese Edition)

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A report issued by the Bank of International Settlement over the weekend warns volatility and sharp market sell-offs are not over and that has the market edging lower. Shares of ASOS fell the hardest. The UK retailer cuts its full-year forecasts on signs of slowing growth and led the entire retail sector to a loss of The French CAC was in the lead at midday, down around The German DAX was close behind with a loss near The BIS report, weak data from China, and fear of an upcoming government shut-down all played a role.

The central bank is largely expected to raise rates by a quarter percent and to indicate a slow-down or pause of future rate hikes until data shows inflation has returned to acceleration.

A variation from this outlook is likely going to spark a major move in equities and currencies. Don't miss a thing! Discover what's moving the markets.

In the 10th century, the Song dynasty government began to circulate these notes amongst the traders in its monopolized salt industry. The Song government granted several shops the right to issue banknotes, and in the early 12th century the government finally took over these shops to produce state-issued currency. Yet the banknotes issued were still only locally and temporarily valid: The already widespread methods of woodblock printing and then Pi Sheng 's movable type printing by the 11th century were the impetus for the mass production of paper money in premodern China.

At around the same time in the medieval Islamic world , a vigorous monetary economy was created during the 7th—12th centuries on the basis of the expanding levels of circulation of a stable high-value currency the dinar. Innovations introduced by Muslim economists, traders and merchants include the earliest uses of credit , [5] cheques , promissory notes , [6] savings accounts , transactional accounts , loaning , trusts , exchange rates , the transfer of credit and debt , [7] and banking institutions for loans and deposits.

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In Europe, paper money was first introduced on a regular basis in Sweden in although Washington Irving records an earlier emergency use of it, by the Spanish in a siege during the Conquest of Granada. As Sweden was rich in copper, its low value necessitated extraordinarily big coins, often weighing several kilograms. The advantages of paper currency were numerous: It enabled the sale of stock in joint-stock companies , and the redemption of those shares in paper.

But there were also disadvantages. First, since a note has no intrinsic value, there was nothing to stop issuing authorities from printing more notes than they had specie to back them with. Second, because it increased the money supply, it increased inflationary pressures, a fact observed by David Hume in the 18th century. Thus paper money would often lead to an inflationary bubble, which could collapse if people began demanding hard money, causing the demand for paper notes to fall to zero.

The printing of paper money was also associated with wars, and financing of wars, and therefore regarded as part of maintaining a standing army. For these reasons, paper currency was held in suspicion and hostility in Europe and America. It was also addictive, since the speculative profits of trade and capital creation were quite large.

Major nations established mints to print money and mint coins, and branches of their treasury to collect taxes and hold gold and silver stock.

At that time, both silver and gold were considered legal tender , and accepted by governments for taxes. However, the instability in the ratio between the two grew over the course of the 19th century, with the increases both in supply of these metals, particularly silver, and in trade. The parallel use of both metals is called bimetallism , and the attempt to create a bimetallic standard where both gold and silver backed currency remained in circulation occupied the efforts of inflationists. Governments at this point could use currency as an instrument of policy, printing paper currency such as the United States Greenback , to pay for military expenditures.

They could also set the terms at which they would redeem notes for specie, by limiting the amount of purchase, or the minimum amount that could be redeemed.

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By , most of the industrializing nations were on some form of gold standard , with paper notes and silver coins constituting the circulating medium. Private banks and governments across the world followed Gresham's law: This did not happen all around the world at the same time, but occurred sporadically, generally in times of war or financial crisis, beginning in the early part of the 20th century and continuing across the world until the late 20th century, when the regime of floating fiat currencies came into force. One of the last countries to break away from the gold standard was the United States in , an action known as the Nixon shock.

No country has an enforceable gold standard or silver standard currency system. A banknote more commonly known as a bill in the United States and Canada is a type of currency, and commonly used as legal tender in many jurisdictions. With coins , banknotes make up the cash form of all money. Banknotes are mostly paper, but Australia's Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation developed the world's first polymer currency in the s that went into circulation on the nation's bicentenary in Now used in some 22 countries over 40 if counting commemorative issues , polymer currency dramatically improves the life span of banknotes and prevents counterfeiting.

Currency use is based on the concept of lex monetae ; that a sovereign state decides which currency it shall use. Currently, the International Organization for Standardization has introduced a three-letter system of codes ISO to define currency as opposed to simple names or currency signs , in order to remove the confusion that there are dozens of currencies called the dollar and many called the franc. Even the pound is used in nearly a dozen different countries; most of these are tied to the Pound Sterling , while the remainder have varying values.

In general, the three-letter code uses the ISO country code for the first two letters and the first letter of the name of the currency D for dollar, for instance as the third letter. United States currency, for instance is globally referred to as USD. The International Monetary Fund uses a variant system when referring to national currencies. Distinct from centrally controlled government-issued currencies, private decentralized trust networks support alternative currencies such as Bitcoin , Ethereum, Litecoin , Monero , Peercoin or Dogecoin , as well as branded currencies, for example 'obligation' based stores of value, such as quasi-regulated BarterCard, Loyalty Points Credit Cards, Airlines or Game-Credits MMO games that are based on reputation of commercial products, or highly regulated 'asset backed' 'alternative currencies' such as mobile-money schemes like MPESA called E-Money Issuance.

Currency may be Internet-based and digital, for instance, bitcoin [11] is not tied to any specific country, or the IMF's SDR that is based on a basket of currencies and assets held. In most cases, a central bank has a monopoly right to issue of coins and banknotes fiat money for its own area of circulation a country or group of countries ; it regulates the production of currency by banks credit through monetary policy.

An exchange rate is the price at which two currencies can be exchanged against each other. This is used for trade between the two currency zones. Exchange rates can be classified as either floating or fixed. In the former, day-to-day movements in exchange rates are determined by the market; in the latter, governments intervene in the market to buy or sell their currency to balance supply and demand at a static exchange rate.

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In cases where a country has control of its own currency, that control is exercised either by a central bank or by a Ministry of Finance. The institution that has control of monetary policy is referred to as the monetary authority. Monetary authorities have varying degrees of autonomy from the governments that create them. A monetary authority is created and supported by its sponsoring government, so independence can be reduced by the legislative or executive authority that creates it.

Several countries can use the same name for their own separate currencies for example, dollar in Australia , Canada and the United States.

By contrast, several countries can also use the same currency for example, the euro or the CFA franc , or one country can declare the currency of another country to be legal tender. For example, Panama and El Salvador have declared US currency to be legal tender, and from to , Spanish silver coins were legal tender in the United States.

At various times countries have either re-stamped foreign coins, or used currency board issuing one note of currency for each note of a foreign government held, as Ecuador currently does. Mauritania and Madagascar are the only remaining countries that do not use the decimal system; instead, the Mauritanian ouguiya is in theory divided into 5 khoums , while the Malagasy ariary is theoretically divided into 5 iraimbilanja.

In these countries, words like dollar or pound "were simply names for given weights of gold. See non-decimal currencies for other historic currencies with non-decimal divisions.

Based on the above restrictions or free and readily conversion features, currencies are classified as:. In economics, a local currency is a currency not backed by a national government, and intended to trade only in a small area. Advocates such as Jane Jacobs argue that this enables an economically depressed region to pull itself up, by giving the people living there a medium of exchange that they can use to exchange services and locally produced goods in a broader sense, this is the original purpose of all money. Opponents of this concept argue that local currency creates a barrier which can interfere with economies of scale and comparative advantage, and that in some cases they can serve as a means of tax evasion.

Local currencies can also come into being when there is economic turmoil involving the national currency. An example of this is the Argentinian economic crisis of in which IOUs issued by local governments quickly took on some of the characteristics of local currencies. One of the best examples of a local currency is the original LETS currency, founded on Vancouver Island in the early s.

The resulting currency and credit scarcity left island residents with few options other than to create a local currency. The following table are estimates of the 15 most frequently used currencies in world payments from to by SWIFT. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see Currency disambiguation. This article needs additional citations for verification.

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