La nuova costituzione economica (Manuali Laterza) (Italian Edition)

Chapter VI. Toward a new Eugenics

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Notwithstanding this, it is obvious that measures that interfere so radically with the destiny and the intimate life of man could cause friction or differences of opinion. Physicians and other authorities that have to do with eugenics cases are always very prudent and delicate in their research; the guiding principle must always be that too few eugenic operations are preferable to too many. I believe that sterilization could be recommended without reserve only if we could have the security that it would be applied in every country with the same humanity used in Denmark.

Although we cannot eliminate the occurrence of hereditary diseases, we can greatly diminish their incidences. Disgracefully, sterilization can and has been used as a weapon of tyranny and, in the current state of human civilization, tyranny is certainly a greater danger than hereditary disease. For this reason, I believe that before we make sterilization obligatory, we must use every way to attempt to convince the carriers of serious and dominant abnormalities to abstain from procreation. A Danish man, Tage Kemp, had the idea of considering his country of only four million inhabitants as a huge experimental breeding ground, and to gather data on all the families that present any elements of interest.

The number of individuals who request sterilization is gradually increasing year by year. It is calculated that today around half of the mentally defective are sterilized and that day in which the major part of hereditary defects have little probability of being diffused in the population is not far off.

Some will object that the sanctity of the family and the mystery of procreation confer intrinsic value on the genetic phenomena of human beings, of a moral and religious order that cannot be cancelled by some scientific discovery. Even admitting this criticism, it is worth observing that the diffusion of practices for the improvement, or rather the non-worsening of the human race, must be achieved through free choice and not imposition. With the development of biological responsibility of the citizens we will entrench new persuasions similar to that of not marrying between siblings. On 29 October , Montalenti wrote to Gini:.

As you were in a position to ascertain in Milan, a fracture can be seen in our society that I have always tried to avoid. If this happens, it is clear that I must stand down as president of the genetics section, because this signifies that my policy has completely failed. Mister President, You are in full knowledge of the situation that has occurred in SIGE and it has been the subject of several discussions between yourself, me and other colleagues last September in Milan.

In particular, you did not wish to accept my proposal to nominate Prof. Adriano Buzzati-Traverso as secretary of the genetics section presided over by myself, making my position difficult and giving me no guarantees that I would be able to represent in good faith all the different currents of Italian genetics. As you know, I continued attempts, after September, to allay the disagreement, with no success. In these conditions, I do not feel I can continue as the genetics section president, and therefore pass into your hands, Mister President, my resignation.

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All the members of the office of the president have agreed that it is indispensable for the section secretaries to reside in Rome. Regarding this, Nora Federici has revealed the already onerous nature of the work of the central secretary, which would be made unsustainable if correspondence with section secretaries in other places was added.

As for me personally, you will recall that I clearly wrote in the circular of February issued to old and new members interested in reviving SIGE, that it was more convenient for the secretaries to reside in the region of the society, a convenience that I felt was agreed with, given that no one raised objections regarding this. In fact, in , the first Italian genetic counseling center was based here, part of the Milan State University, as a direct emanation of the Study Center in Human Genetics, directed by Luisa Gianferrari.

The second one was generic and was almost always requested for blood related marriages. Just like thirty years earlier, the debate on the eugenic control of marriages was stimulated by the process of modernization of the welfare system, motivated by the dramatic consequences of the Second World War. In his contribution, Mantovani declared himself in favor of the introduction of compulsory premarital examinations, possibly with a prohibitory character:.

It would be easy to conclude the sanitary examination with the exhibition of a certificate of fitness to a public official or a priest, containing at worst, prudential advice. It would be more difficult to conclude with a prohibition, which implies inquiry, control and security measures. I believe that society has the right to take these preventive measures in its defense, even if this leads us to damage some of its members. I believe that the introduction of civil habits of control for those who are united in marriage could signal the start of a true, if still uncertain, hygienic conscience, very necessary for the moral and material well-being of all.

If it is Christian to bear pain, I do not believe that ignorance or brutalization are Christian. The positions of the various participants—prevalently syphilographers and gynecologists—reflected the plurality of opinions which was typical of Italian eugenic debate. Each year considerable sums are spent with the intent, often, unfortunately, in vain, of bringing a physically or psychically abnormal person back to social life, when many times, the birth of this person could have been avoided if only we had informed the parents of the impending danger.

Without counting that, if the most caring assistance is an unquestionable duty to this unhappy individual, reinserting him into the social life is often a biological absurdity, because every rehabilitated individual could represent the uncontrollable possibility of procreation of other unhappy people.

If I were to present those entire families in the psychiatric hospital, father, mother and many children, I am sure that even the fanatical defenders of liberty would be perplexed. In these subjects, mental deficiency is clearly imprinted on their faces and it is certainly not necessary to be a physician to see it. Nevertheless, neither the municipal official, nor the parish priest has had the good sense to refuse to unite such people in marriage. His point of reference was the legislation of some States of the American confederation, with respect to the introduction of a compulsory premarital examination, with a prohibitory character.

At the end of the work, the commission published a document that briefly summarized the critical considerations of the experts who had participated. Luisa Gianferrari, in particular, pronounced herself in favor of non-obligatory visits that regarded not only venereal illnesses, but all hereditary diseases.

The public appreciate the concept and the initiative and understand the problem; but due to a singular form of inertia, they need to be pushed by propaganda to go to the counseling. When the political papers or the weeklies speak of the possible dangers of marriage and the necessity to prevent them with a premarital examination, the counseling center has many patients for some months; no sooner has the propaganda slowed than the public also thins out.

This would necessitate the introduction therefore of a fine for any municipal official who celebrated a marriage without the registration of the premarital visit. This moderate line came to be the general position of the juridical section of the Commission, which, in its final resolution, interpreted an eventual compulsory premarital examination as the first step along a dangerous path that necessarily led to eugenic sterilization. The concerns for sanitary protection and social defense are sacrosanct, but we must be careful, as it is the start of a path that leads to a consequence that no one wishes to see arrive in Italy: If we commence with prohibiting marriages, step by step, that is where we will end.

And perhaps we should not forget that man is man, and not a bovine or equine race to improve with progressive selection. Obstacles should be placed before a physically defective person who could compromise, through marriage, the possibility of physical and spiritual life of the children, impoverishing or compromising at the same time the general equilibrium of the life of society.

We can not claim that the old forms will mature by themselves into new experiences. Suitable legislative acts are needed to break the crust of tradition, and open it toward always deeper integration.

Democratic Front and historian of philosophy, proposed these conclusive resolutions:. Tibaldi Chiesa had been delegated by the Italian Republican Party PRI to study the problem of the institution of premarital consultancies. Whoever comes to the counseling service is not under the obligation to give their details, but only all the data useful to the consultant, and has the right to receive, at the end of the consultation and the tests, a written declaration justifying the advice for the better fulfillment of marriage.

The response would be verbal and free, without obligation to provide details. We believe that any compulsory eugenics is unacceptable and we are contrary to every measure damaging to the moral and juridical rights of man, even if it is limited to the obligation to present a premarital certificate or attend a consultation. Our experience of over a decade of eugenic counseling has demonstrated to us that even from a technical point of view, eugenic counseling must necessarily be based on the collaborative activity of those interested, which must derive from a voluntary act, determined by the conscience to fulfill the moral obligation that marriage carries in regards to the health of the unborn children.

The only means available to prevent the diffusion of pathological factors [ We must be aware that such a measure, in eugenics, can be distinguished into compulsory and non-compulsory. The first possibility includes premarital certificates and sterilization, carried out through surgery or radiology. The second option includes preventive birth control, based on limitation of births, sexual education and eugenic counseling.

We believe moreover that preventive birth control in practice fails eugenic aims, due to selfishness and hedonism. What remains is education and eugenic counseling. Idiotypic prophylaxis comprises both classical eugenics, which aims for the improvement of the stock through the selection of spouses, favoring the reproduction of individuals particularly endowed, and impeding as much as possible that of defective individuals, and idiotypic therapy.

This can be practiced through amphimixis, that is, the insertion in defective plasm of factors that act to correct or block pathological factors, or by favoring a return mutation, if the pathological form is influenced by mutational factors. From a theoretical point of view, we are therefore authorized to declare that if we are able to understand the environmental components necessary for the manifestation of hereditary pathological characteristics and their active momentum, there will be only one limitation to possible intervention, that of law, omnipresent.

Even if we limit eugenics to free counseling, State measures are necessary to diffuse and control it, possibly improving current private initiatives. In our opinion, the State must: Article seven, in particular, read as follows:. Whoever intends to contract a marriage can ask a provincial physician or a municipal sanitary official to arrange, through a recommended sanitary institute, the ascertainment of their current state of health, comprising a serological blood test for syphilis [ The results of the examination should not be indicated on the certificate.

In practice, the issue was resolved by confirming the voluntary nature of the act: It was, in fact, in the last half of the s that the Italian public health system finally recognized the relevance of the studies and sanitary program that Ezio Silvestroni and Ida Bianco, at the time pathologists at the Medical Clinic of the University of Rome, had formulated since This national association provided the first example worldwide of a prophylactic campaign against thalassemia, and not surprisingly, was successively adopted in Greece and Cyprus in initiatives based on the same model.

In in Ferrara—one of the zones most hit by microcythemia and in which the activities of ANLMI were particularly intense and effective—the entire school population in the provincial territory was screened. On 5 September , in a special audience to the participants of the 7th Congress of the International Society of Blood Transfusion, the Pope cited the example of the Dight Institute at the University of Minnesota as a model to imitate for eugenic counseling in Italy, in order not to damage individual freedom:.

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In a general sense, we must, first of all, underline the necessity of providing the public with the indispensable information on blood and its heredity, so as to permit individuals and families to be on their guard against this terrible eventuality. These services will not just give information, but help those interested to carry out the appropriate measures.

If, as usually happens, the probability of producing a child who is a carrier of this defect is less than was feared, they may decide to have other children.

Reed, director of the Dight Institute from to They must be alert to all that could cause permanent damage to their descendants and lead to an interminable length of disgrace. In regards to this, let us remember that the community of blood between people, whether in the family or the community, imposes certain duties. Although the formal elements of every human community are of a psychological and moral order, the descendants constitute the material basis that must be respected and not damaged.

Those excesses that can lead to racial pride and hatred are unfortunately overly marked. It also disapproves of any genetic experience that takes the spiritual nature of man too lightly and treats it as an example of any animal species. Four questions specifically addressed the problem of Mediterranean anemia.

This examination is advisable, just as, if the danger is truly serious, it could be imposed in certain provinces or localities. In Italy, in the entire Mediterranean basin, and where groups of emigrants from this country are gathered, we must keep special track of this Mediterranean hematological disorder. It was permissible to advise against, but not prohibit, and the Church proposed, as acceptable contraceptive methods from a Catholic moral point of view, abstinence and the Ogino-Knaus method, and also approved of adoption of children.

Neither simple ignorance, nor fraudulent concealment of a hereditary defect, nor moreover the positive error that would have impeded the marriage if the defect had been discovered, are sufficient to cast doubt on its validity.

ALESSANDRO PIZZORUSSO

The object of the matrimonial contract is too simple and too clear to be able to plead ignorance. Eugenics is today rapidly earning public notice, so that Renzo and Lucia would be more likely to consult the physician before going to Don Abbondio or to Azzeccagarbugli. From this, Gedda explicitly condemned any form of mandatory premarital certificate:. We are against that exaggeration called mandatory premarital medical certification, clearly being of the view that the free consultation of a physician on the part of the betrothed is at least as important as the consultation of a lawyer.

Eugenic counseling by a physician revolves around two poles: However hereditarily defective he might be, man is endowed with values that are truly human, which cannot be deliberately ignored, or reviled in anyone. Registration, as discreet as the proposal suggests it would be, would never be secret, and would therefore classify, in front of public opinion, in a seriously damaging way, a category of people who, beneath other aspects, may be worthwhile, and who are not morally at fault in any way for having received a certain inheritance.

The same moral principles just enunciated have weight for the birth control of defectives, with one addition. Birth control, including certain methods that have been publicly proclaimed, is not so different from the sterilization of defectives pursued by racism, and we cannot understand how those who are justly opposed to that procedure can consider themselves satisfied by birth control. Explicitly recalling the Tibaldi Chiesa bill, the new proposal presented in July by the Christian Democrat deputy Beniamino De Maria identified the premarital certificate as one of the indispensable sanitary instruments for defending the solidity of the family structure, which was increasingly under threat:.

The socio-economic and above all, moral, progress of our country has by now matured the principal problems that surround the institute of marriage and the formation of an increasingly advanced and civilized society. The dangers of such progress are well known and undermine the roots of matrimony as an indissoluble bind on which the family should be founded. These measures must work in such a way that the youth, who intend to unite themselves for all their lives, will be more responsible and knowledgeable of the act that they are about to undertake, and of the perspectives, rights and duties that attend the founders of a new family, from a juridical, moral, and in particular, hygienic-sanitary point of view.

Added to such indications however, were the authorization of the release of the certificate to individuals for both public and private counseling centers, and the introduction of monetary fines, according to criteria already outlined by the CNPDS Commission. The results of the analysis, fruit of a first draft written on the 9 November and successively completed with the observations of Cavalli-Sforza and Italo Barrai, were available until May First of all, the geneticists rejected the idea of a blanket mandatory examination, believing it damaging to individual freedom and also difficult to manage, due to the scarce availability of personnel qualified in genetic counseling.

They proposed instead to limit the obligatoriness to only currently manifesting contagious illnesses, which could be easily identified by provincial laboratories of hygiene and prophylaxis, without any particular problem of organization or funding. Luigi Luca Cavalli-Sforza, and in general the secular component of the commission, strongly petitioned for the indication of a specific role of counseling in the field of family planning:. As regards the juridical and moral advice that the counseling center can offer, it seems implicit that it should include, among other things, the responsibility of the newlyweds for the future offspring, also in the field of family planning.

Regarding the latter, they demanded the recognition of their specific and irreplaceable professional skills. The main problem consisted evidently in the situation of serious backwardness of medical genetics in Italy. This concern also pervaded the final report of the AGI scientific meeting held in Pavia in September We can say that general genetics, as much as human genetics, medical genetics and molecular biology are, qualitatively, on an international level; specialized medical genetics however must still develop in Italy.

In other terms, though we have solid bases on which to construct a series of schools of specialized medical genetics, these in practice, do not exist. While we believe that it is appropriate to open centers, once qualified staff has been trained, we think that the obligatoriness of the premarital examination is absolutely unadvisable. In fact, such a visit would constitute a notable limitation of individual freedom.

We believe therefore that every citizen should have a genetic service available, and not a mandatory examination. In , a program of voluntary screening and genetic counseling was set up, in which prenatal diagnosis was side by side with a large spectrum communicative work, coordinated with general practitioners, family planning associations and patient associations. Starting from a frequency of live homozygous births of about 1 in , in Sardinia the campaign managed to bring the frequency to 1 in in the first decade, getting to 1 in in And what do you think of those S.

With this, they also make us look stupid, regarding those who would have been invited, who will conclude that usually in Italy, we gently lead each other to the gallows. Let us be frank; our Society has not been created without any opposition, and now finds itself in a polemical phase. On one side, the major part of general genetics experts hesitates to admit that human genetics and even less, medical genetics has the right to an autonomous life. On the other side, physicians have taken the study of the hereditariness of physiological, psychological and pathological characteristics of the human species upon themselves.

Who, if not the specialized clinician, can discover how illnesses of the skeleton, blood, metabolism, organs of sense, the psyche, are propagated in descendents, if they do not have specific knowledge of each of these arguments? In , for the qualification exam sessions for the chair in human genetics, the Ministry of Public Education Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione consulted the First Section of the High Council Sezione I del Consiglio Superiore of Public Education regarding the composition of the deciding committee.

The High Council proposed the following names: Without taking this recommendation into account, on 15 June , the Christian Democrat Antonio Segni, Minister of Public Education, proposed an alternative: The composition of a deciding committee should be, in fact, an act of acute technical discretion, possessed to the maximum by the High Council as the consultative organ expressly created to that end: The deciding committee had to be, in addition, composed of technicians, and therefore professors, of the relevant discipline in this case, genetics or of related disciplines.

On the contrary, three pathologists and a clinician had been included. According to this report, it was up to the Ministry to nominate the deciding committee and the recommendation of the High Council was certainly not binding. Neither did the Ministry need to offer a motivation to explain a decision which contrasted with the advice of the High Council. As for the choice of specialties for the composition of the deciding committee, State Advocacy did not believe that it violated any law, substantially for two reasons.

It seems that we find ourselves in front of one of those typical cases in which the law allows us to have recourse to research fellows. The sentence was expressed in two parts. In the first, the State Council recognized the formal validity of the appeal. In the second, it reaffirmed, contrary to the position of State Advocacy, the function of the High Council and the limits of eventually different decisions. The title chosen— Genetics, medicine and constitution —was significant in itself.

The problem of the constitution must be confronted using concepts, terms and laws of genetics to find a true, convincing and useful solution. The doctrine of the constitution is a corollary of medical genetics. On the other, he strongly condemned certain defensive measures in genetics and eugenics. The practical aims being pursued by genetics are noble and worthy of recognition and encouragement.

Would that your science, in weighing up the means destined to achieve those ends, could only remain always conscious of the fundamental difference that exists between the animal and vegetable world on the one hand, and man on the other! In the first case, the means of bettering the species and race are entirely at the disposal of science.

On the other hand, in the domain of man, genetics are always dealing with personal beings, possessing inviolable rights, with individuals who for their part are bound by inflexible moral laws in the exercise of their power to raise up a new life. Thus the Creator himself has established certain barriers in the moral domain, which no human power has authority to remove.

Family and twin studies were published in Acta geneticae medicae et gemellologiae and were presented at the International Symposium of Medical Genetics and at the 2nd International Congress of Human Genetics, organized by Luigi Gedda in and His close links with Gedda were exemplarily reassumed, along with numerous scientific collaborations, by the pompous homage the Italian geneticist dedicated to him in , on the occasion of his sixtieth birthday, in the pages of Acta geneticae medicae et gemellologiae.

Master of well-known fame and forger of men, who dedicated himself to scientific research with a spirit of vocation, he is also an example of industry and method for all scientists, and especially for all geneticists, beyond the borders of his School and his Nation. I have always said that race is only the sum total of certain traits. But human genetics is not so simple. The Church is very interested in the subject. Do twins have two souls or one? The Holy Father received us in audience. He came up to me and said: Adenauer has been re-elected.

The Holy Father spoke about this. But we should continue to aspire to the heights. A year after he participated, accompanied by his wife, with great enthusiasm and notable scientific contributions, in the Second International Conference of Human Genetics in Rome, Prof. Ruggles Gates has died at the age of 80, in London. In that capital he was professor of Botany from to During his academic career he was oriented always more toward the study of genetics, with particular regard to racial and population genetics.

Generous to the young, cordial with his friends, ingenious in his studies, pioneer of the genetic revision of anthropology, his exemplary spirit of researcher and master remains among us. At the Congress on Sports Medicine, organized in by the Olympic Executive Committee presided over by the Christian Democratic politician Giulio Andreotti and by the Surgical Clinic of the University of Rome, directed by Pietro Valdoni, Luigi Gedda presented a paper that synthesized the results of the genealogical and twin research conducted by the Mendel Institute since The geneticist must advise that the selection of athletes should take maximum notice of the familial sporting anamnesy, [ In , he presented CONI with a project relative to the adoption of an official scientific program for the Olympic Games, based on the following premise:.

The forms consisted of 73 questions, divided into four pages and several subgroups: Manual ability right-handed, left-handed, ambidextrous does not appear to be associated with any differential value of performance tab. The following ironic account was published in the review Il Ponte , in June Leslie Tuelove, the manager of the British Olympic delegation, today declared: Gedda was a fantastic example of brazenness. Our athletic association was never informed of anything and I will do everything to make sure my athletes refuse to respond.

Gedda will receive only rude answers. I will certainly not tell him. How can I know if I am cold or passionate? The forms, sent to the 84 participating countries in the period of Olympic athlete selection, were not received everywhere with the serene comprehension and sense of responsibility that scientific research requires. That could be expected on the part of promoters because it lacked a tradition, as it was the first time in which they were asked to overcome the commitments and emotion of sporting competition with the calm and objective vision of the scientific eye.

Additionally, many nations were not equipped to respond to the questions of the inquiry due to the lack of health structures, or of personnel adept at data collection, or due to lack of time, absorbed by late training and the trip. Several newspapers also showed the bad taste to joke about this work, making it more difficult. As often happens with new initiatives, it is easier to ridicule then it is to evaluate it.

With a convention signed on 19 November , the University of Rome had instituted the chair of medical genetics, completely financed by ONMI, for 3,, lire annually. The position, it goes without saying, was offered by the company San Tommaso Apostolo , proprietor and managing entity of the Mendel Institute. Dear Montalenti, It has been reported to me that in the competition for the professorship of human genetics [sic] at the University of Rome, the number one proposal was Gedda. You know that no tenured professor of genetics was part of the deciding committee, and instead Lambertini took part!

Would you like to place the news yourself, without comments? If you do not wish to do it, I ask you to tell me all the information: What has occurred, which has been long in preparation with the creation of the Mendel Institute largely supported by the Vatican and with the convention between that Institute and the University of Rome, is truly scandalous.

I give you all the details in the attached paper. For various reasons that you will understand among others, we are colleagues at the University of Rome this year, and it could seem as if I were jealous of him I would prefer that my name does not appear. But I agree with you that the scandal must be denounced, even if, as you say, it will not do any good. The voting of the Faculty of Medicine for the deciding committee of the competition for the professorship of medical genetics in Rome had the following results in order of number of votes: Luigi Condorelli, professor of clinical medicine at University of Rome; Gastone Lambertini, professor of normal human anatomy, Naples; Luigi Turano, professor of medical radiology, Rome; Antonio Lanedei, professor of medical pathology, Florence; Giov.

Federico De Gaetani, professor of general pathology, Turin. None of these has the least competency in human genetics, nor in general genetics: Many votes demonstrated however that the body of professors of medicine were far from unanimous. Many voting cards had to be cancelled because they expressed votes such as the following: Additionally, there were about forty blank voting cards. The results of the competition were the following: The three clinicians wished to leave the other two posts vacant.

However the recommendation of the other members of the committee prevailed, and so the second post was covered by Ruggero Ceppellini, lecturer in Turin, human geneticist of great value, who however received only three votes; one vote for second place went to Marcello Siniscalco, of the Institute of Genetics of Naples, another competent person of value. In third place, with three votes, was L. Cavalli-Sforza, who was short-listed third of three in genetics the previous year, but did not receive the professorship […].

A domesticated committee was created, made up of physicians incompetent in genetics, all dutiful to the commands of the Vatican. In this way they achieved the aim of offering the professorship to the ex-president of the Catholic Action, a name whose scientific value is nil, and whose only foreseeable future activity is politics. Montalenti, I am very grateful for your congratulations and best wishes so kindly expressed and very dear to me. I am looking forward to your arrival in Rome, when I can consult with you more easily. Bellagio Como, 24—31 agosto Florence: Florentiae, , 1, Pavia, Italy, August 20—23, Pavia: He graduated in natural sciences in and was appointed as assistant at the Institute of zoology in the University of Rome, directed by Federico Raffaele.

In he obtained the position of aiuto at the Institute of zoology at the University of Bologna, directed by Alessandro Ghigi, and stayed until Between and he taught courses of genetics in Rome. In , Montalenti became head of the department of zoology at the Naples Zoological Station. The following year he was appointed to hold the first professorship of genetics in Italy, instituted at the Faculty of Science of the University of Naples, a chair that he held until , at the same time keeping his position as department head of the Station until Thanks to a Rockefeller Fellowship, he spent a year in Plymouth Massachusetts, USA before receiving, in , a position teaching in zoology and anatomy in Sassari, from where he transferred to Modena , and finally to Pavia Education and career Graduated October summa cum laude in law from the University of Pisa, where he also studied at the prestigious Collegio Medico-Giuridico of the Scuola Normale Superiore which since changed his name into Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies.

He was an assistant professor at the Universities of Pisa and Rome and, since , has served as professor at the Universities of Urbino, Naples and Rome. Global administrative law is an emerging field that is based upon a dual insight: The focus of this field is not the specific content of substantive rules, but rat Legal science is one of the main components in the civil law tradition after Roman law, canon law, commercial law, and the legacy of the revolutionary period.

Legal science is primarily the creation of German legal scholars of the middle and late nineteenth century, and it evolved naturally out of the ideas of Friedrich Carl von Savigny. Savigny argued that German codification should not follow the rationalist and secular natural law thinking that characterized the French codification but should be based on the principles of law that had historically been in force in Germany.

Garner Sabino Cassese, Recensione a J. The Sapienza University of Rome Italian: The University is one of the most prestigious Italian universities, commonly ranking first in national rankings and in Southern Europe. History Palazzo della Sapienza, former home of the University until Church of Sant'Ivo alla ISTAO organizes post-graduate and executive courses as well as it gives its contribution in the field of Economy and Finance. He was born in Rome, Italy.

He served in the cabinet of Prime Minister Cossiga Sabino Cassese, Il politico, il riformatore, lo studioso, in Mondoperaio, n. Civil ensign of Austria-Hungary The division between lands to be administered from Vienna deep pink and lands to be administered from Budapest yellow under the dual monarchy Ausgleich" agreement. From , Bosnia-Herzegovina green was jointly administered. The Austro-Hungarian Compromise of German: The Compromise partially re-established[1] the sovereignty of the Kingdom of Hungary, separate from, and no longer subject to the Austrian Empire.

The agreement also restored the old historic constitution of the Kingdom of Hungary. One was to regain the traditional status both legal and political of the Hungarian state, which was lost after the Hu In , Bottai ended his studies at law faculty and became a freemason, member of the Gran Loggia d'Italia. During the March on Rome, B It is often known in Italy as the Normale. Many scientists, researchers and intellectuals, as well as prominent public figures, including two Presidents of Italy, were also students there.

Historically established in Pisa, it was known until as the Scuola Normale Superiore di Pisa, until it was extended to Florence by absorbing the Italian Institute of Human Science. It is one of the three officially sanctioned special-statute public universities in Italy The university was founded as an academic institution in , although it was not fully recognised as a university until In the s it gained recognition as an "Independent University", with a charter that made state aid possible although not mandatory.

Once fully recognized as an Independent University, student numbers gradually increased as more facilities were opened. While the student body and faculties gradually increased and developed over time, it was under the long-lasting rectorship of Senator for Life Carlo Bo that the University enjoyed unprecedented growth in size and The University of Pisa Italian: It was founded in [1] by an edict of Pope Clement VI.

Il patrimonio costituzionale europeo

It is the 19th oldest extant university in the world and the 10th oldest in Italy. It houses the Orto botanico di Pisa, Europe's oldest academic botanical garden, which was founded in The university has about 50, students of which 46, are undergraduate and postgraduate studies, and 3, are doctoral and specialization studies. In the fields of philology and cultural studies, the University of Pisa is a leading member of ICoN, an inter-university consortium of 21 Italian universities supported by the Ministry of Education, Universities and Researc Sistema Universitario Pisano is a network of higher education institutions in Pisa, Italy.

The following three schools and universities belong to the system: Top universities and specialisms ,[4][ The former president was Giuliano Amato, a former prime minister of Italy and currently judge of the Constitutional Court. It is one of the three officially sanctioned special-statute universities in Italy, i. He was first appointed a judge of the Court on 1 November , and in was elected to serve an additional three years as President.

A constitutional referendum was held in Italy on Sunday 4 December The bill, put forward by then- Prime Minister of Italy, Matteo Renzi, and his centre-left Democratic Party, was first introduced by the government in the Senate on 8 April After several amendments were made to the proposed law by both the Senate and the Chamber of Deputies, the bill received its first approval on 13 October Senate and 11 January Chamber , and, eventually, its second and final approval on 20 January Senate and 12 April Chamber. The commission acts as executor of the Fulbright Program to and from Italy.

Since , the commission has fostered mutual cultural understanding through educational exchange of persons, knowledge, and skills. The commission offers competitive, merit-based grants for students, scholars, teachers, professionals, scientists and artists. The commission is governed by a Board of twelve members: Manlio Graziano is an Italian scholar specializing in geopolitics and geopolitics of religions. He lives in Paris. Life Graziano graduated with first-class honors in French literature from the University of Turin, the city in which he then taught for several years.

Thanks to the French geopolitician Michel Korinman and to Lucio Caracciolo, editor of the Italian geopolitical journal Limes, he entered the world of geopolitical studies, in which he specializes in geopolitics of religions. This page lists individuals and organisations who publicly expressed an opinion regarding the Italian constitutional referendum, It held office from 28 April until 10 May , a total of days, or 1 year and 12 days. It was the first government of the Republic to be led by a non-Parliamentarian. The government was a technical one.

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