Progress in Spatial Analysis: Methods and Applications (Advances in Spatial Science)

Progress in Spatial Analysis : Methods and Applications

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Other applications of hydrological modeling include groundwater and surface water mapping , as well as flood risk maps. Dana Tomlin probably coined the term "cartographic modeling" in his PhD dissertation ; he later used it in the title of his book, Geographic Information Systems and Cartographic Modeling Tomlin used raster layers, but the overlay method see below can be used more generally. Operations on map layers can be combined into algorithms, and eventually into simulation or optimization models.

The combination of several spatial datasets points, lines, or polygons creates a new output vector dataset, visually similar to stacking several maps of the same region. These overlays are similar to mathematical Venn diagram overlays. A union overlay combines the geographic features and attribute tables of both inputs into a single new output. An intersect overlay defines the area where both inputs overlap and retains a set of attribute fields for each.

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A symmetric difference overlay defines an output area that includes the total area of both inputs except for the overlapping area. Data extraction is a GIS process similar to vector overlay, though it can be used in either vector or raster data analysis.

Geographic information system

Rather than combining the properties and features of both datasets, data extraction involves using a "clip" or "mask" to extract the features of one data set that fall within the spatial extent of another dataset. In raster data analysis, the overlay of datasets is accomplished through a process known as "local operation on multiple rasters" or " map algebra ", through a function that combines the values of each raster's matrix. This function may weigh some inputs more than others through use of an "index model" that reflects the influence of various factors upon a geographic phenomenon.

Geostatistics is a branch of statistics that deals with field data, spatial data with a continuous index. It provides methods to model spatial correlation, and predict values at arbitrary locations interpolation. When phenomena are measured, the observation methods dictate the accuracy of any subsequent analysis.

Due to the nature of the data e.

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This loss of precision is determined from the scale and distribution of the data collection. To determine the statistical relevance of the analysis, an average is determined so that points gradients outside of any immediate measurement can be included to determine their predicted behavior. This is due to the limitations of the applied statistic and data collection methods, and interpolation is required to predict the behavior of particles, points, and locations that are not directly measurable.

Interpolation is the process by which a surface is created, usually a raster dataset, through the input of data collected at a number of sample points. There are several forms of interpolation, each which treats the data differently, depending on the properties of the data set.

In comparing interpolation methods, the first consideration should be whether or not the source data will change exact or approximate. Next is whether the method is subjective, a human interpretation, or objective. Then there is the nature of transitions between points: Finally, there is whether a method is global it uses the entire data set to form the model , or local where an algorithm is repeated for a small section of terrain. Interpolation is a justified measurement because of a spatial autocorrelation principle that recognizes that data collected at any position will have a great similarity to, or influence of those locations within its immediate vicinity.

Digital elevation models , triangulated irregular networks , edge-finding algorithms, Thiessen polygons , Fourier analysis , weighted moving averages , inverse distance weighting , kriging , spline , and trend surface analysis are all mathematical methods to produce interpolative data. A reference theme is required to geocode individual addresses, such as a road centerline file with address ranges.

The individual address locations have historically been interpolated, or estimated, by examining address ranges along a road segment. These are usually provided in the form of a table or database. The software will then place a dot approximately where that address belongs along the segment of centerline. Geocoding can also be applied against actual parcel data, typically from municipal tax maps. In this case, the result of the geocoding will be an actually positioned space as opposed to an interpolated point.

This approach is being increasingly used to provide more precise location information. Reverse geocoding is the process of returning an estimated street address number as it relates to a given coordinate. For example, a user can click on a road centerline theme thus providing a coordinate and have information returned that reflects the estimated house number. This house number is interpolated from a range assigned to that road segment.

Note that reverse geocoding does not return actual addresses, only estimates of what should be there based on the predetermined range. Coupled with GIS, multi-criteria decision analysis methods support decision-makers in analysing a set of alternative spatial solutions, such as the most likely ecological habitat for restoration, against multiple criteria, such as vegetation cover or roads.

MCDA uses decision rules to aggregate the criteria, which allows the alternative solutions to be ranked or prioritised. Cartography is the design and production of maps, or visual representations of spatial data. The vast majority of modern cartography is done with the help of computers, usually using GIS but production of quality cartography is also achieved by importing layers into a design program to refine it.

First, it produces graphics on the screen or on paper that convey the results of analysis to the people who make decisions about resources. Wall maps and other graphics can be generated, allowing the viewer to visualize and thereby understand the results of analyses or simulations of potential events.

Web Map Servers facilitate distribution of generated maps through web browsers using various implementations of web-based application programming interfaces AJAX , Java , Flash , etc. Second, other database information can be generated for further analysis or use. Traditional maps are abstractions of the real world, a sampling of important elements portrayed on a sheet of paper with symbols to represent physical objects.

People who use maps must interpret these symbols. Topographic maps show the shape of land surface with contour lines or with shaded relief. Today, graphic display techniques such as shading based on altitude in a GIS can make relationships among map elements visible, heightening one's ability to extract and analyze information. A GIS was used to register and combine the two images to render the three-dimensional perspective view looking down the San Andreas Fault , using the Thematic Mapper image pixels, but shaded using the elevation of the landforms.

An archeochrome is a new way of displaying spatial data.

Spatial Statistics

It is suited to the visual display of heat-loss data. These tools can come in the form of add-ins to existing wider-purpose software such as spreadsheets. GIS or spatial data mining is the application of data mining methods to spatial data. Typical applications include environmental monitoring. A characteristic of such applications is that spatial correlation between data measurements require the use of specialized algorithms for more efficient data analysis. The implementation of a GIS is often driven by jurisdictional such as a city , purpose, or application requirements.

Generally, a GIS implementation may be custom-designed for an organization. Hence, a GIS deployment developed for an application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose may not be necessarily interoperable or compatible with a GIS that has been developed for some other application, jurisdiction, enterprise, or purpose. GIS provides, for every kind of location-based organization, a platform to update geographical data without wasting time to visit the field and update a database manually. GIS when integrated with other powerful enterprise solutions like SAP [31] and the Wolfram Language [32] helps creating powerful decision support system at enterprise level.

Compliance tests are not available for all specifications. These services give the public access to huge amounts of geographic data; perceived by many users to be as trustworthy and usable as professional information. Some of them, like Google Maps and OpenLayers , expose an application programming interface API that enable users to create custom applications.

Web mapping has also uncovered the potential of crowdsourcing geodata in projects like OpenStreetMap , which is a collaborative project to create a free editable map of the world. These mashup projects have been proven to provide a high level of value and benefit to end users outside that possible through traditional geographic information. The condition of the Earth's surface, atmosphere, and subsurface can be examined by feeding satellite data into a GIS.

As an example, the changes in vegetation vigor through a growing season can be animated to determine when drought was most extensive in a particular region. The resulting graphic represents a rough measure of plant health. Working with two variables over time would then allow researchers to detect regional differences in the lag between a decline in rainfall and its effect on vegetation. The satellite sensor output used to generate a vegetation graphic is produced for example by the advanced very-high-resolution radiometer AVHRR. This sensor system detects the amounts of energy reflected from the Earth's surface across various bands of the spectrum for surface areas of about 1 square kilometer.

The satellite sensor produces images of a particular location on the Earth twice a day. In addition to the integration of time in environmental studies, GIS is also being explored for its ability to track and model the progress of humans throughout their daily routines. A concrete example of progress in this area is the recent release of time-specific population data by the U. In this data set, the populations of cities are shown for daytime and evening hours highlighting the pattern of concentration and dispersion generated by North American commuting patterns. Tools and technologies emerging from the World Wide Web Consortium 's Semantic Web are proving useful for data integration problems in information systems.

Ontologies are a key component of this semantic approach as they allow a formal, machine-readable specification of the concepts and relationships in a given domain.

This in turn allows a GIS to focus on the intended meaning of data rather than its syntax or structure. For example, reasoning that a land cover type classified as deciduous needleleaf trees in one dataset is a specialization or subset of land cover type forest in another more roughly classified dataset can help a GIS automatically merge the two datasets under the more general land cover classification.

Also, simpler ontologies and semantic metadata standards are being proposed by the W3C Geo Incubator Group [45] to represent geospatial data on the web. With the popularization of GIS in decision making, scholars have begun to scrutinize the social and political implications of GIS. At the end of the 20th century, GIS began to be recognized as tools that could be used in the classroom. GIS seem to provide many advantages in teaching geography because they allow for analyses based on real geographic data and also help raise many research questions from teachers and students in classrooms, as well as they contribute to improvement in learning by developing spatial and geographical thinking and, in many cases, student motivation.

GIS is proven as an organization-wide, enterprise and enduring technology that continues to change how local government operates. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. For other uses, see GIS disambiguation. System to capture, manage and present geographic data. Historical geographic information system and Time geography. Neogeography and Public participation GIS.

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Progress in Spatial Analysis

Geographic information systems and cartographic modeling. Prentice Hall series in geographic information science. Retrieved 28 March Transportation Research Part C: Ethical implications for IT professionals in public service". Ethics and Information Technology. Applied Ergonomics Submitted manuscript. How to Lie with Maps. University of Chicago Press. Surveillance, Transparency and Democracy: Public Administration in the Information Age.

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The Design Journal Submitted manuscript. Geographic data and information organizations Geographical societies Geoscience societies National mapping agency. Goodreads helps you keep track of books you want to read. Want to Read saving…. Want to Read Currently Reading Read. Progress in Spatial An Refresh and try again.

Open Preview See a Problem? Thanks for telling us about the problem. Return to Book Page. This book brings together developments in spatial analysis techniques, including spatial statistics, econometrics, and spatial visualization, and applications to fields such as regional studies, transportation and land use, population and health. To see what your friends thought of this book, please sign up. To ask other readers questions about Progress in Spatial Analysis , please sign up.

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