Dwight D. Eisenhower: The Professional Soldier and the Study of History

Dwight D. Eisenhower

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President Bill Clinton signed the bill into law P. The law provided for a chair and vice chair they could not be members of the same political party , the appointment of new members in case of vacancy, and a date for the initial meeting nor more than 45 days after all appointments have been made. Members of the commission would receive no compensation. The commission had the power to spend money appropriated or donated to it, accept donations, hold hearings, and enter into contracts. It was required to make annual reports to the President and Congress, and make a report about the memorial plans as soon as possible.

In , Congress enhanced the commission's duties and powers. The commission was also empowered to seek the assistance of any federal agency so long as it paid for that assistance , enter into cooperative agreements with the same, and to procure administrative and support services from the General Services Administration GSA. A commission staff was also established. An executive director was required to be employed, and the commission was authorized to hire staff including an architect, and no more than three senior staff and accept volunteers. Commissioners and staff and volunteers were now reimbursed for their reasonable travel expenses.

Most importantly, an unlimited amount of money was authorized but not actually appropriated to carry out the commission's duties and to design and construct the memorial. The basic theme of the Eisenhower memorial was outlined at the Eisenhower Memorial Commission's first meeting in June Senator Stevens said he wanted an "out-of-the-box" design, and Senator Inouye said the design should be so spectacular that the Eisenhower Memorial would surpass the Lincoln Memorial and Jefferson Memorial as the most-visited memorial in the nation's capital.

According to Washingtonian magazine, commission chairman Siciliano early on raised the name of architect Frank Gehry as a potential designer. Siciliano was already friends with Gehry: They both lived in Santa Monica, California , and Siciliano's late wife had introduced them. Siciliano also sat on the board of directors of the Los Angeles Philharmonic , which in commissioned Gehry to design its Walt Disney Concert Hall.

The auditorium opened in to critical acclaim. Several Eisenhower family members, however, expressed their desire for a "living memorial". Susan Eisenhower , former president and chairman emeritus of the Eisenhower Institute, was a particular advocate of the concept. The "living memorial" would not be a monument but rather a program or think tank or some other organization which would help to perpetuate the legacy and values of President Eisenhower. Siciliano expressed his view that a "living memorial" would be far too costly to endow and operate, but Senators Stevens and Inouye thought the idea had merit.

The outcome of the "living memorial" study is not clear. Washingtonian magazine reported that, at a memorial commission meeting in June , Siciliano said the Eisenhower Institute concluded a "living memorial" would duplicate the work of the institute and other "legacy organizations" private foundations and nonprofits dedicated to perpetuating the legacy and carrying on the work of President Eisenhower. According to the memorial commission, Susan Eisenhower and representatives from other "legacy organizations" reached a consensus that the existing legacy groups already formed a "living memorial".

In order to pursue a physical memorial, the Eisenhower Memorial Commission needed the authority to erect a memorial on public lands. The act gave the commission the right to erect a memorial on public lands under the jurisdiction of the United States Department of the Interior anywhere in the District of Columbia or its environs. The act also placed the memorial under the authority of the Commemorative Works Act as then amended. This required the commission to work with the National Capital Memorial Advisory Commission in selecting a site, meet certain fundraising requirements, and meet certain deadlines.

Once constructed, title to the memorial would be turned over to the National Park Service. A total of 26 sites were reviewed by the Eisenhower Memorial Commission. The criteria for choosing a site included: Three sites were short-listed by the commission. The structure's vast atrium, which looks out on Constitution Avenue , was discussed as early as June But according to an Eisenhower Memorial Commission report, a member of the Eisenhower family opposed co-locating the memorial there.

The commission hired M. A report on the sites was considered by the commission at its March meeting. Commissioner David Eisenhower successfully moved that the commission limit its focus to Freedom Plaza and the Maryland Avenue site. The location is also just three blocks from the United States Capitol. The commission requested that the site be named "Eisenhower Square" once the memorial was built. Selection of this site immediately caused controversy.

Some urban planning advocates who wanted to restore Maryland Avenue SW to its original alignment through the square were angry because that the memorial would preclude it. The choice of the Maryland Avenue site involved additional congressional action. The Commemorative Works Act barred the erection of any memorials within "Area 1", the National Mall and its immediate environs.

Any memorial erected in Area 1 required the approval of Congress. Congress provided that approval in "Approving the location of the commemorative work in the District of Columbia honoring former President Dwight D. The design process began in At a commission meeting to consider design principles in March , Siciliano mentioned Gehry's name for a second time as a possible memorial designer. Susan Eisenhower, who was present as a member of the audience, asked if "the design vocabulary would be modern or traditional". The commission moved ahead with pre-planning for the design competition in None of the firms were minority-owned firms, six firms were owned by women, and 11 firms were small businesses.

After receiving more details from those on its selected "short list", the Eisenhower Memorial Commission selected the proposal submitted by Frank Gehry of Gehry Partners on March 31, Nonetheless, David Eisenhower was reportedly very pleased with Gehry's selection. The design competition has been strongly criticized. Shubow characterized the design process as rigged in Gehry's favor, and established a Web site, EisenhowerMemorial.

Spreiregen, architect, professional advisor for the Vietnam Veterans Memorial competition, and former chairman of the American Institute of Architects ' Committee on Competitions, who in called for a design competition open to the public. Although Issa's primary concern was the memorial's design, Issa requested that Eisenhower Memorial Commission chair Rocco Siciliano provide the committee with copies of all proposed designs submitted during the design competition, a detailed description of competition process, a detailed description of the means by which the commission selected the Gehry submission, and documentation on all votes taken by the commission regarding the design competition broken down by member.

Issa, in his capacity as an ex officio member of the National Capital Planning Commission, also directed the Eisenhower Memorial Commission to preserve all documentation related to the design competition and the Gehry design. Subcommittee chairman Representative Rob Bishop R-Utah asked how much it would cost to run a second design competition, [15] and the political affairs newspaper Roll Call said Bishop "tried to restart the design competition".

Guerin, assistant commissioner for the Office of Construction at GSA, said critics mischaracterized the call for proposals as a closed competition. The Magazine of the American Institute of Architects , wrote nine days after the hearing that the design competition as a "limited request for qualifications" rather than a closed competition.

On March 25, , the Eisenhower Memorial Commission unanimously selected the preferred design concept created by Frank O. Gehry and the commission and design team completed its first round of meetings with federal review agencies. The setting for the four-acre memorial will be framed by giant welded steel tapestries supported by columns feet tall by feet wide. The largest tapestry will extend nearly the entire city-block length of the Department of Education Building.

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The tapestry will depict an aerial view of Normandy Beach at the present day. Elements of Eisenhower's home in Abilene, Kansas will be included, according to the commission. Gehry's initial tapestry design, which depicted the Kansas landscape, received unanimous concept approval from United States Commission of Fine Arts CFA on September 15, , including affirmation that the scale and artistry are appropriate.

However, following revisions and meetings including the review of tapestry mock-ups, Secretary of Education Arne Duncan wrote that the U. Department of Education supported the current design of the memorial. The Architect of the Capitol endorsed Gehry's design revision, and "applaud[ed] the decision, courage, and commitment of time" that the design team gave to the Section Consultation Meeting process, [25] noting that there are no negative impacts on the view and vista of the U.

The commission's preferred design concept approved in March , which included Commissioner David Eisenhower 's approval Dwight Eisenhower's grandson , represents Eisenhower as president and general through large stone bas reliefs and text. Although final images and quotations are still under consideration, the leading alternative image representing the general is General Eisenhower with st Airborne troops prior to the D-Day invasion in June Memorials in Washington have historically been controversial.

Someone should scrub the design and start over. Lewis, an architect and a professor emeritus at the University of Maryland, criticized and opposed the design in the Washington Post: Gehry instead could craft a less grandiose yet visually powerful memorial composition Will also opposed the design in the Washington Post. While some have expressed criticism, others have voiced support for the design. Philip Kennicott, the Washington Post culture critic, praised the design: He has 're-gendered' the vocabulary of memorialization, giving it new life and vitality.

Commission of Fine Arts, Witold Rybczynski, whose critique of the memorial appeared in The New York Times , praised the concept of the roofless building and defended the size of the tapestries: Gehry and his collaborators have developed hand-weaving techniques so that the screens really do resemble tapestries. Having seen full-size mock-ups of the screens on the site, I am convinced that their size will not be out of scale with the surroundings.

Commission of Fine Arts, wrote to Congress in support of the design. Landscape architects Laurie Olin and William Pedersen have called the design a worthy tribute to a great national leader that is "in sympathy with the character of Washington, D. Gehry's proposal promises to be a wonderful addition to the face of the Mall, a vision Washington is lucky to have. Moving forward, Congress should authorize these plans as quickly as possible so the memorial can proceed on schedule. As entertaining as these squabbles have often been, enough is enough already.

Once Mussolini , the Italian leader, had fallen in Italy, the Allies switched their attention to the mainland with Operation Avalanche. But while Eisenhower argued with President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill , who both insisted on unconditional terms of surrender in exchange for helping the Italians, the Germans pursued an aggressive buildup of forces in the country.

The Germans made the already tough battle more difficult by adding 19 divisions and initially outnumbering the Allied forces 2 to 1. Eisenhower, as well as the officers and troops under him, had learned valuable lessons in their previous operations, and their skills had all strengthened in preparation for the next most difficult campaign against the Germans—a beach landing assault.

His first struggles, however, were with Allied leaders and officers on matters vital to the success of the Normandy invasion; he argued with Roosevelt over an essential agreement with De Gaulle to use French resistance forces in covert and sabotage operations against the Germans in advance of Overlord. King fought with Eisenhower over King's refusal to provide additional landing craft from the Pacific. Patton , by severely reprimanding him when Patton earlier had slapped a subordinate , and then when Patton gave a speech in which he made improper comments about postwar policy.

The D-Day Normandy landings on June 6, , were costly but successful. Many thought that victory in Europe would come by summer's end, but the Germans did not capitulate for almost a year. He was ever mindful of the inevitable loss of life and suffering that would be experienced on an individual level by the troops under his command and their families. This prompted him to make a point of visiting every division involved in the invasion.

It has been called one of the great speeches of history:. Our landings in the Cherbourg-Havre area have failed to gain a satisfactory foothold and I have withdrawn the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the best information available.

The troops, the air and the Navy did all that bravery and devotion to duty could do. If any blame or fault attaches to the attempt, it is mine alone.

Dwight D. Eisenhower Memorial

Once the coastal assault had succeeded, Eisenhower insisted on retaining personal control over the land battle strategy, and was immersed in the command and supply of multiple assaults through France on Germany. Field Marshal Montgomery insisted priority be given to his 21st Army Group 's attack being made in the north, while Generals Bradley 12th U. Army Group and Devers Sixth U. Army Group insisted they be given priority in the center and south of the front respectively.

Eisenhower worked tirelessly to address the demands of the rival commanders to optimize Allied forces, often by giving them tactical latitude; many historians conclude this delayed the Allied victory in Europe. However, due to Eisenhower's persistence, the pivotal supply port at Antwerp was successfully, albeit belatedly, opened in late , and victory became a more distinct probability.

In recognition of his senior position in the Allied command, on December 20, , he was promoted to General of the Army , equivalent to the rank of Field Marshal in most European armies. In this and the previous high commands he held, Eisenhower showed his great talents for leadership and diplomacy. Although he had never seen action himself, he won the respect of front-line commanders. He had serious disagreements with Churchill and Montgomery over questions of strategy, but these rarely upset his relationships with them.

He dealt with Soviet Marshal Zhukov , his Russian counterpart, and they became good friends. In December , the Germans launched a surprise counter offensive, the Battle of the Bulge , which the Allies turned back in early after Eisenhower repositioned his armies and improved weather allowed the Air Force to engage. The British wanted to capture Berlin, but Eisenhower decided it would be a military mistake for him to attack Berlin, and said orders to that effect would have to be explicit.

The British backed down, but then wanted Eisenhower to move into Czechoslovakia for political reasons. Washington refused to support Churchill's plan to use Eisenhower's army for political maneuvers against Moscow. The actual division of Germany followed the lines that Roosevelt, Churchill and Stalin had previously agreed upon. The Soviet Red Army captured Berlin in a very large-scale bloody battle , and the Germans finally surrendered on May 7, In , Eisenhower anticipated that someday an attempt would be made to recharacterize Nazi crimes as propaganda Holocaust denial and took steps against it by demanding extensive still and movie photographic documentation of Nazi death camps.

Following the German unconditional surrender, Eisenhower was appointed military governor of the American occupation zone , located primarily in Southern Germany , and headquartered at the IG Farben Building in Frankfurt am Main. Upon discovery of the Nazi concentration camps , he ordered camera crews to document evidence of the atrocities in them for use in the Nuremberg Trials. Eisenhower followed the orders laid down by the Joint Chiefs of Staff JCS in directive JCS , but softened them by bringing in , tons of food for civilians and allowing more fraternization.

His main role was rapid demobilization of millions of soldiers, a slow job that was delayed by lack of shipping. Eisenhower was convinced in that the Soviet Union did not want war and that friendly relations could be maintained; he strongly supported the new United Nations and favored its involvement in the control of atomic bombs.

However, in formulating policies regarding the atomic bomb and relations with the Soviets, Truman was guided by the U. State Department and ignored Eisenhower and the Pentagon. Indeed, Eisenhower had opposed the use of the atomic bomb against the Japanese, writing, "First, the Japanese were ready to surrender and it wasn't necessary to hit them with that awful thing.

Second, I hated to see our country be the first to use such a weapon. In June , a visiting politician had suggested to Eisenhower that he might become President of the United States after the war.

Believing that a general should not participate in politics, one author later wrote that "figuratively speaking, [Eisenhower] kicked his political-minded visitor out of his office". As others asked him about his political future, Eisenhower told one that he could not imagine wanting to be considered for any political job "from dogcatcher to Grand High Supreme King of the Universe", and another that he could not serve as Army Chief of Staff if others believed he had political ambitions.

In Truman told Eisenhower during the Potsdam Conference that if desired, the president would help the general win the election, [] and in he offered to run as Eisenhower's running mate on the Democratic ticket if MacArthur won the Republican nomination. As the election approached, other prominent citizens and politicians from both parties urged Eisenhower to run for president.

In January , after learning of plans in New Hampshire to elect delegates supporting him for the forthcoming Republican National Convention , Eisenhower stated through the Army that he was "not available for and could not accept nomination to high political office"; "life-long professional soldiers", he wrote, "in the absence of some obvious and overriding reason, [should] abstain from seeking high political office". Many believed he was forgoing his only opportunity to be president: Dewey was considered the probable winner and would presumably serve two terms, meaning that Eisenhower, at age 66 in , would be too old to have another chance to run.

Eisenhower's profit on the book was substantially aided by an unprecedented ruling [ citation needed ] by the U. Eisenhower's stint as the president of Columbia University was punctuated by his activity within the Council on Foreign Relations , a study group he led as president concerning the political and military implications of the Marshall Plan , and The American Assembly , Eisenhower's "vision of a great cultural center where business, professional and governmental leaders could meet from time to time to discuss and reach conclusions concerning problems of a social and political nature".

His biographer Blanche Wiesen Cook suggested that this period served as "the political education of General Eisenhower", since he had to prioritize wide-ranging educational, administrative, and financial demands for the university. Through his involvement in the Council on Foreign Relations, he also gained exposure to economic analysis, which would become the bedrock of his understanding in economic policy.

Eisenhower accepted the presidency of the university to expand his ability to promote "the American form of democracy" through education. He was clear on this point to the trustees involved in the search committee. He informed them that his main purpose was "to promote the basic concepts of education in a democracy". As a result, he was "almost incessantly" devoted to the idea of the American Assembly, a concept he developed into an institution by the end of Within months of beginning his tenure as the president of the university, Eisenhower was requested to advise U.

Secretary of Defense James Forrestal on the unification of the armed services. About six months after his appointment, he became the informal Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Washington. Two months later he fell ill, and he spent over a month in recovery at the Augusta National Golf Club. He returned to his post in New York in mid-May, and in July took a two-month vacation out-of-state.

Because the American Assembly had begun to take shape, he traveled around the country during mid-to-late , building financial support from Columbia Associates, an alumni association. Eisenhower was unknowingly building resentment and a reputation among the Columbia University faculty and staff as an absentee president who was using the university for his own interests.

As a career military man, he naturally had little in common with the academics. The contacts gained through university and American Assembly fund-raising activities would later become important supporters in Eisenhower's bid for the Republican party nomination and the presidency. As the president of Columbia, Eisenhower gave voice and form to his opinions about the supremacy and difficulties of American democracy.

His tenure marked his transformation from military to civilian leadership. His biographer Travis Beal Jacobs also suggested that the alienation of the Columbia faculty contributed to sharp intellectual criticism of him for many years. Eisenhower retired from active service as an army general on May 31, , and he resumed his presidency of Columbia.

He held this position until January 20, , when he became the President of the United States. NATO did not have strong bipartisan support in Congress at the time that Eisenhower assumed its military command. Eisenhower advised the participating European nations that it would be incumbent upon them to demonstrate their own commitment of troops and equipment to the NATO force before such would come from the war-weary United States.

Nevertheless, Eisenhower thought that NATO would become a truly European alliance, with the American and Canadian commitments ending after about ten years. President Truman, symbolizing a broad-based desire for an Eisenhower candidacy for president, again in pressed him to run for the office as a Democrat. It was at this time that Eisenhower voiced his disagreements with the Democratic Party and declared himself and his family to be Republicans. The effort was a long struggle; Eisenhower had to be convinced that political circumstances had created a genuine duty for him to offer himself as a candidate, and that there was a mandate from the populace for him to be their President.

Henry Cabot Lodge, who served as his campaign manager, and others succeeded in convincing him, and in June he resigned his command at NATO to campaign full-time. Eisenhower's campaign was noted for the simple but effective slogan, " I Like Ike ". It was essential to his success that Eisenhower express opposition to Roosevelt's policy at Yalta and against Truman's policies in Korea and China—matters in which he had once participated. Nixon as the Vice-President on the ticket was designed in part for that purpose.

Nixon also provided a strong anti-communist presence as well as some youth to counter Ike's more advanced age. In the general election, against the advice of his advisers, Eisenhower insisted on campaigning in the South, refusing to surrender the region to the Democratic Party. The campaign strategy, dubbed "K 1 C 2 ", was to focus on attacking the Truman and Roosevelt administrations on three issues: Korea, Communism and corruption.

In an effort to accommodate the right, he stressed that the liberation of Eastern Europe should be by peaceful means only; he also distanced himself from his former boss President Truman. Two controversies during the campaign tested him and his staff, but did not affect the campaign. One involved a report that Nixon had improperly received funds from a secret trust. Nixon spoke out adroitly to avoid potential damage, but the matter permanently alienated the two candidates.

The second issue centered on Eisenhower's relented decision to confront the controversial methods of Joseph McCarthy on his home turf in a Wisconsin appearance. He promised to maintain a strong commitment against Communism while avoiding the topic of NATO; finally, he stressed a corruption-free, frugal administration at home.

He defeated Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson II in a landslide, with an electoral margin of to 89, marking the first Republican return to the White House in 20 years. Eisenhower was the last president born in the 19th century, and at age 62, was the oldest man elected President since James Buchanan in President Truman stood at 64 in as the incumbent president, having succeeded to the Presidency in upon the death of Franklin Roosevelt. The United States presidential election of was held on November 6, Eisenhower, the popular incumbent, successfully ran for re-election. The election was a re-match of , as his opponent in was Stevenson, a former Illinois governor, whom Eisenhower had defeated four years earlier.

His voters were less likely to bring up his leadership record. Instead what stood out this time, "was the response to personal qualities— to his sincerity, his integrity and sense of duty, his virtue as a family man, his religious devotion, and his sheer likeableness. Due to a complete estrangement between the two as a result of campaigning, Truman and Eisenhower had minimal discussions about the transition of administrations.

Dodge , Eisenhower asked Herbert Brownell Jr. Clay to make recommendations for his cabinet appointments. Humphrey with whom he developed his closest relationships, and one woman, Oveta Culp Hobby. Eisenhower's cabinet, consisting of several corporate executives and one labor leader, was dubbed by one journalist, "Eight millionaires and a plumber. Prior to his inauguration, Eisenhower led a meeting of advisors at Pearl Harbor addressing foremost issues; agreed objectives were to balance the budget during his term, to bring the Korean War to an end, to defend vital interests at lower cost through nuclear deterrent, and to end price and wage controls.

His inaugural address was also exclusively devoted to foreign policy and included this same philosophy as well as a commitment to foreign trade and the United Nations. Eisenhower made greater use of press conferences than any previous president, holding almost over his two terms. While he saw the benefit of maintaining a good relationship with the press, he saw more value in them as a means of direct communication with the American people. Throughout his presidency, Eisenhower adhered to a political philosophy of dynamic conservatism.

He expanded its programs and rolled them into a new cabinet-level agency, the Department of Health, Education and Welfare , while extending benefits to an additional ten million workers. He implemented integration in the Armed Services in two years, which had not been completed under Truman. When the Congressional elections approached, it became evident that the Republicans were in danger of losing their thin majority in both houses.

Eisenhower was among those who blamed the Old Guard for the losses, and he took up the charge to stop suspected efforts by the right wing to take control of the GOP. Eisenhower then articulated his position as a moderate, progressive Republican: If the right wing wants a fight, they are going to get it Eisenhower initially planned on serving only one term, but as with other decisions, he maintained a position of maximum flexibility in case leading Republicans wanted him to run again.

During his recovery from a heart attack late in September 25 , he huddled with his closest advisors to evaluate the GOP's potential candidates; the group, in addition to his doctor, concluded a second term was well advised, and he announced in February he would run again. He personally favored Robert B. Anderson , a Democrat, who rejected his offer; Eisenhower then resolved to leave the matter in the hands of the party.

The level of campaigning was curtailed out of health considerations. Eisenhower valued the brief respites and the amenities of an office which he endowed with an arduous daily schedule. He made full use of his valet, chauffeur, and secretarial support—he rarely drove or dialed a phone number. He was an avid fisherman, golfer, painter, and bridge player, and preferred active rather than passive forms of entertainment. Eisenhower was assured of an enduring achievement when he championed and signed the bill that authorized the Interstate Highway System in It was believed that large cities would be targets in a possible war, hence the highways were designed to facilitate their evacuation and ease military maneuvers.

Eisenhower's goal to create improved highways was influenced by difficulties encountered during his involvement in the U. Army's Transcontinental Motor Convoy. He was assigned as an observer for the mission, which involved sending a convoy of U. Army vehicles coast to coast. The Interstate Highway System could also be used as a runway for airplanes, which would be beneficial to war efforts.

This system was put into place by Franklin D. Roosevelt , in , under the Federal-Aid Highway Act of Noticing the improved ability to move logistics throughout the country, he thought an Interstate Highway System in the U.

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In , the Republican Party's Old Guard presented Eisenhower with a dilemma by insisting he disavow the Yalta Agreements as beyond the constitutional authority of the Executive Branch; however, the death of Joseph Stalin in March made the matter a moot point. Biographer Stephen Ambrose opined that this was the best speech of Eisenhower's presidency.

Nevertheless, the Cold War escalated during his presidency. When the Soviet Union successfully tested a hydrogen bomb in late November , Eisenhower, against the advice of Dulles, decided to initiate a disarmament proposal to the Soviets. In an attempt to make their refusal more difficult, he proposed that both sides agree to dedicate fissionable material away from weapons toward peaceful uses, such as power generation. This approach was labeled " Atoms for Peace ". This approach became known as the " New Look ", and was initiated with defense cuts in late In American nuclear arms policy became one aimed primarily at arms control as opposed to disarmament.

The failure of negotiations over arms until was due mainly to the refusal of the Russians to permit any sort of inspections. In talks located in London that year, they expressed a willingness to discuss inspections; the tables were then turned on Eisenhower, when he responded with an unwillingness on the part of the U. In May of that year the Russians agreed to sign a treaty giving independence to Austria, and paved the way for a Geneva summit with the U.

Russian leader Nikita Khrushchev dismissed the proposal out of hand.

In , Eisenhower articulated the domino theory in his outlook towards communism in Southeast Asia and also in Central America. He believed that if the communists were allowed to prevail in Vietnam, this would cause a succession of countries to fall to communism, from Laos through Malaysia and Indonesia ultimately to India. Likewise, the fall of Guatemala would end with the fall of neighboring Mexico. Kennedy was left to carry out. Eisenhower and the CIA had known since at least January , nine months before Sputnik, that Russia had the capability to launch a small payload into orbit and was likely to do so within a year.

By launching a satellite, Russia had in effect acknowledged that space was open to anyone who could access it, without needing permission from other nations. On the whole, Eisenhower's support of the nation's fledgling space program was officially modest until the Soviet launch of Sputnik in , gaining the Cold War enemy enormous prestige around the world.

He then launched a national campaign that funded not just space exploration but a major strengthening of science and higher education. The Eisenhower administration determined to adopt a non-aggressive policy that would allow "space-crafts of any state to overfly all states, a region free of military posturing and launch Earth satellites to explore space".

Fear spread through the United States that the Soviet Union would invade and spread communism , so Eisenhower wanted to not only create a surveillance satellite to detect any threats but ballistic missiles that would protect the United States. In strategic terms, it was Eisenhower who devised the American basic strategy of nuclear deterrence based upon the triad of B bombers, land-based intercontinental ballistic missiles ICBMs , and Polaris submarine-launched ballistic missiles SLBMs.

NASA planners projected that human spaceflight would pull the United States ahead in the Space Race as well as accomplishing their long time goal; however, in , an Ad Hoc Panel on Man-in-Space concluded that "man-in-space can not be justified" and was too costly. In late Eisenhower went to Korea and discovered a military and political stalemate.

Once in office, when the Chinese communists began a buildup in the Kaesong sanctuary, he threatened to use nuclear force if an armistice was not concluded. His earlier military reputation in Europe was effective with the Chinese communists. In July , an armistice took effect with Korea divided along approximately the same boundary as in The armistice and boundary remain in effect today.

The armistice, concluded despite opposition from Secretary Dulles, South Korean President Syngman Rhee , and also within Eisenhower's party, has been described by biographer Ambrose as the greatest achievement of the administration. Eisenhower had the insight to realize that unlimited war in the nuclear age was unthinkable, and limited war unwinnable. A point of emphasis in Ike's campaign had been his endorsement of a policy of liberation from communism as opposed to a policy of containment.

This remained his preference despite the armistice with Korea. Eisenhower continued Truman's policy of recognizing the Republic of China Free China as the legitimate government of China, not the Beijing regime. There were localized flare-ups when the People's Liberation Army began shelling the islands of Quemoy and Matsu in September Eisenhower received recommendations embracing every variation of response to the aggression of the Chinese communists.

He thought it essential to have every possible option available to him as the crisis unfolded. He requested and secured from Congress their "Free China Resolution" in January , which gave Eisenhower unprecedented power in advance to use military force at any level of his choosing in defense of Free China and the Pescadores.

The Resolution bolstered the morale of the Chinese nationalists, and signaled to Beijing that the U.

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Eisenhower openly threatened the Chinese communists with use of nuclear weapons, authorizing a series of bomb tests labeled Operation Teapot. Nevertheless, he left the Chinese communists guessing as to the exact nature of his nuclear response. This allowed Eisenhower to accomplish all of his objectives—the end of this communist encroachment, the retention of the Islands by the Chinese nationalists and continued peace. Even before he was inaugurated Eisenhower accepted a request from the British government to restore the Shah of Iran Mohammad Reza Pahlavi to power.

Simultaneously he condemned the brutal Soviet invasion of Hungary in response to the Hungarian Revolution of He publicly disavowed his allies at the United Nations, and used financial and diplomatic pressure to make them withdraw from Egypt. Designed by Secretary of State Dulles, it held the U. Further, the United States would provide economic and military aid and, if necessary, use military force to stop the spread of communism in the Middle East.

Eisenhower applied the doctrine in —58 by dispensing economic aid to shore up the Kingdom of Jordan , and by encouraging Syria 's neighbors to consider military operations against it. More dramatically, in July , he sent 15, Marines and soldiers to Lebanon as part of Operation Blue Bat , a non-combat peace-keeping mission to stabilize the pro-Western government and to prevent a radical revolution from sweeping over that country. The mission proved a success and the Marines departed three months later.

The deployment came in response to the urgent request of Lebanese president Camille Chamoun after sectarian violence had erupted in the country. Washington considered the military intervention successful since it brought about regional stability, weakened Soviet influence, and intimidated the Egyptian and Syrian governments, whose anti-West political position had hardened after the Suez Crisis.

Most Arab countries were skeptical about the "Eisenhower doctrine" because they considered "Zionist imperialism" the real danger. However, they did take the opportunity to obtain free money and weapons. Egypt and Syria, supported by the Soviet Union, openly opposed the initiative. As the Cold War deepened, Dulles sought to isolate the Soviet Union by building regional alliances of nations against it. Critics sometimes called it " pacto-mania ". Eisenhower stated prophetically that "this war would absorb our troops by divisions. Eisenhower did provide France with bombers and non-combat personnel.

After a few months with no success by the French, he added other aircraft to drop napalm for clearing purposes. After France and the Communists agreed to a partition of Vietnam, Eisenhower rejected the agreement, offering military and economic aid to southern Vietnam. In late , Gen. Lawton Collins was made ambassador to "Free Vietnam" the term South Vietnam came into use in , effectively elevating the country to sovereign status. Collins' instructions were to support the leader Ngo Dinh Diem in subverting communism, by helping him to build an army and wage a military campaign.

After Diem announced the formation of the Republic of Vietnam RVN, commonly known as South Vietnam in October, Eisenhower immediately recognized the new state and offered military, economic, and technical assistance. In the years that followed, Eisenhower increased the number of U. President Eisenhower pledged his continued support, and a parade was held in Diem's honor in New York City. Although Diem was publicly praised, in private Secretary of State John Foster Dulles conceded that Diem had been selected because there were no better alternatives. After the election of November , Eisenhower in briefing with John F.

Kennedy pointed out the communist threat in Southeast Asia as requiring prioritization in the next administration. Eisenhower told Kennedy he considered Laos "the cork in the bottle" with regard to the regional threat. On May 1, , a U. The flight was made to gain photo intelligence before the scheduled opening of an East-West summit conference, which had been scheduled in Paris, 15 days later.

Four days after Powers disappeared, the Eisenhower Administration had NASA issue a very detailed press release noting that an aircraft had "gone missing" north of Turkey. It speculated that the pilot might have fallen unconscious while the autopilot was still engaged, and falsely claimed that "the pilot reported over the emergency frequency that he was experiencing oxygen difficulties. Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev announced that a "spy-plane" had been shot down but intentionally made no reference to the pilot. As a result, the Eisenhower Administration, thinking the pilot had died in the crash, authorized the release of a cover story claiming that the plane was a "weather research aircraft" which had unintentionally strayed into Soviet airspace after the pilot had radioed "difficulties with his oxygen equipment" while flying over Turkey.

Eisenhower refused to accede to Khrushchev's demands that he apologize. Therefore, Khrushchev would not take part in the summit. Up until this event, Eisenhower felt he had been making progress towards better relations with the Soviet Union.

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Nuclear arms reduction and Berlin were to have been discussed at the summit. Eisenhower stated it had all been ruined because of that "stupid U-2 business". The affair was an embarrassment for United States prestige. On August 19, , Powers was convicted of espionage and sentenced to imprisonment. While President Truman had begun the process of desegregating the Armed Forces in , actual implementation had been slow.

Eisenhower made clear his stance in his first State of the Union address in February , saying "I propose to use whatever authority exists in the office of the President to end segregation in the District of Columbia, including the Federal Government, and any segregation in the Armed Forces". Anderson , Eisenhower's first Secretary of the Navy , argued that the U.

Navy must recognize the "customs and usages prevailing in certain geographic areas of our country which the Navy had no part in creating," Eisenhower overruled him: There must be no second class citizens in this country. The administration declared racial discrimination a national security issue, as Communists around the world used the racial discrimination and history of violence in the U.

Eisenhower told District of Columbia officials to make Washington a model for the rest of the country in integrating black and white public school children. The act for the first time established a permanent civil rights office inside the Justice Department and a Civil Rights Commission to hear testimony about abuses of voting rights. Although both acts were much weaker than subsequent civil rights legislation, they constituted the first significant civil rights acts since In , the state of Arkansas refused to honor a federal court order to integrate their public school system stemming from the Brown decision.

Eisenhower demanded that Arkansas governor Orval Faubus obey the court order. When Faubus balked, the president placed the Arkansas National Guard under federal control and sent in the st Airborne Division. They escorted and protected nine black students ' entry to Little Rock Central High School , an all-white public school, for the first time since the Reconstruction Era. Eisenhower had a Republican Congress for only his first two years in office; in the Senate, the Republican majority was by a one-vote margin.

Taft assisted the President greatly in working with the Old Guard, and was sorely missed when his death in July left Eisenhower with his successor William Knowland , whom Eisenhower disliked. This prevented Eisenhower from openly condemning Joseph McCarthy's highly criticized methods against communism. To facilitate relations with Congress, Eisenhower decided to ignore McCarthy's controversies and thereby deprive them of more energy from involvement of the White House. This position drew criticism from a number of corners. Eisenhower was urged to respond directly and specify the various measures he had taken to purge the government of communists.

The administration had discovered through its own investigations that one of the leading scientists on the AEC, J. Robert Oppenheimer , had urged that the H-bomb work be delayed. Eisenhower removed him from the agency and revoked his security clearance, though he knew this would create fertile ground for McCarthy. Eisenhower was furious, and issued an order as follows: Ike's denial of McCarthy's access to his staff reduced McCarthy's hearings to rants about trivial matters, and contributed to his ultimate downfall.

In early , the Old Guard put forward a constitutional amendment, called the Bricker Amendment , which would curtail international agreements by the Chief Executive, such as the Yalta Agreements. Eisenhower opposed the measure. The President succeeded in getting legislation creating a system of licensure for nuclear plants by the AEC. The Democrats gained a majority in both houses in the election. Joe Martin , the Republican Speaker from to and again from to , wrote that Eisenhower "never surrounded himself with assistants who could solve political problems with professional skill.

There were exceptions, Leonard W. Hall , for example, who as chairman of the Republican National Committee tried to open the administration's eyes to the political facts of life, with occasional success. However, these exceptions were not enough to right the balance. Speaker Martin concluded that Eisenhower worked too much through subordinates in dealing with Congress, with results, "often the reverse of what he has desired" because Members of Congress, "resent having some young fellow who was picked up by the White House without ever having been elected to office himself coming around and telling them 'The Chief wants this'.

The administration never made use of many Republicans of consequence whose services in one form or another would have been available for the asking. Whittaker was unsuited for the role and soon retired. Stewart and Harlan were conservative Republicans, while Brennan was a Democrat who became a leading voice for liberalism. He has a national name for integrity, uprightness, and courage that, again, I believe we need on the Court".

Eisenhower began chain smoking cigarettes at West Point, often three or four packs a day. He joked that he "gave [himself] an order" to stop cold turkey in But Evan Thomas says the true story was more complex. At first he removed cigarettes and ashtrays, but that did not work. He told a friend:. He was the first president to release information about his health and medical records while in office, but people around him deliberately misled the public about his health. On September 24, , while vacationing in Colorado, he had a serious heart attack.

Howard Snyder , his personal physician, misdiagnosed the symptoms as indigestion, and failed to call in the help that was urgently needed. Snyder later falsified his own records to cover his blunder and to protect Eisenhower's need to portray he was healthy enough to do his job. The heart attack required six weeks' hospitalization, during which time Nixon, Dulles, and Sherman Adams assumed administrative duties and provided communication with the President. Paul Dudley White , a cardiologist with a national reputation, who regularly informed the press of the President's progress.

Instead of eliminating him as a candidate for a second term as President, his physician recommended a second term as essential to his recovery. As a consequence of his heart attack, Eisenhower developed a left ventricular aneurysm , which was in turn the cause of a mild stroke on November 25, This incident occurred during a cabinet meeting when Eisenhower suddenly found himself unable to speak or move his right hand. The stroke had caused an aphasia. The president also suffered from Crohn's disease , [] chronic inflammatory condition of the intestine, [] which necessitated surgery for a bowel obstruction on June 9, Eisenhower's health issues forced him to give up smoking and make some changes to his dietary habits, but he still indulged in alcohol.

During a visit to England he complained of dizziness and had to have his blood pressure checked on August 29, ; however, before dinner at Chequers on the next day his doctor General Howard Snyder recalled Eisenhower "drank several gin-and-tonics, and one or two gins on the rocks The last three years of Eisenhower's second term in office were ones of relatively good health.

Eventually after leaving the White House, he suffered several additional and ultimately crippling heart attacks. Eisenhower suffered seven heart attacks from until his death. The 22nd Amendment to the U. Constitution was ratified in , and it set term limits to the presidency of two terms. Truman as the incumbent was not covered. Eisenhower became the first U. Truman , left office before the Act was passed. Under the act, Eisenhower was entitled to receive a lifetime pension, state-provided staff and a Secret Service detail.

He told friends, "I will do almost anything to avoid turning my chair and country over to Kennedy. When asked by reporters at the end of a televised press conference to list one of Nixon's policy ideas he had adopted, Eisenhower joked, "If you give me a week, I might think of one. Nixon narrowly lost to Kennedy. Eisenhower, who was the oldest president in history at that time then 70 , was succeeded by the youngest elected president, as Kennedy was It was originally intended for President Eisenhower to have a more active role in the campaign as he wanted to respond to attacks Kennedy made on his administration.

However, First Lady Mamie Eisenhower expressed concern to Second Lady Pat Nixon about the strain campaigning would put on his heart and wanted the President to back out of it without letting him know of her intervention. Vice President Nixon himself also received concern from White House physician Major General Howard Snyder, who informed him that he could not approve a heavy campaign schedule for the President and his health had been exacerbated by Kennedy's attacks. Nixon then convinced Eisenhower not to go ahead with the expanded campaign schedule and limit himself to the original schedule.

Nixon reflected that if Eisenhower had carried out his expanded campaign schedule he might have had a decisive impact on the outcome of the election, especially in states that Kennedy won with razor-thin margins. It was years later before Mamie told Dwight why Nixon changed his mind on Dwight's campaigning. He described the Cold War: The book describes not only his education as a professional Soldier, but his failings and successes and presents the conduct of WWII in the European theatre in a strategic setting.

I highly recommend this book to anyone who has an interest in military history and WWII. While he "achieved everlasting distinction as the thirty-fourth President of the United States, Dwight David Eisenhower would have been elated merely to be remembered as a good soldier. Dec 07, William J. This is a thorough assessment of General of the Army Eisenhower!

The author also weaves the family life of the General throughout the book. Ike's relationship with his parents, brothers, spouse, son and with his WWII driver, Kay Summersby are addressed giving some light to the character and upbringing of Dwight Eisenhower. The author is very critical of General of the Army Bradley's style and subs This is a thorough assessment of General of the Army Eisenhower! The author is very critical of General of the Army Bradley's style and substance of leadership especially his handling of the first two days of the Ardennes, Battle of the Bulge.

D'Este is less critical and somewhat defensive of Field Marshall Montgomery. He attributes many of the actions of General Montgomery to his drive for victory rather than from personal conceit or narcissism. Retired Army officer and military historian, D'Este has written a comprehensive biography of Ike's military career. D'Este takes a balanced, critical view of Eisenhower http: My personal interest in reading about Ike's life began with knowledge t Retired Army officer and military historian, D'Este has written a comprehensive biography of Ike's military career.

My personal interest in reading about Ike's life began with knowledge that my maternal grandfather was a schoolmate Grandfather Reade was four years older than Ike of Ike's in Abilene http: Another connection, both the Eisenhower's and the Reade's had a brood of seven boys. Jan 28, Dad rated it liked it. His greatest task was keeping the Allies together - no little task with all the egos. He was a super manager of men and material and was spotted very early in his career.

His personality was such that he was liked and apparently personable, and, at the same time, a very unemotional and tacturn man. Feb 23, Maria rated it liked it Shelves: Seriously in-depth biography of Eisenhower up to the surrender of the Germnay in May Why I started this book: Why I finished it: It was odd how detailed the book was until the very abrupt ending.

Especially since D'Este mentioned his future presidency more than once. Not that I would have survived a longer book. This was definitely a marathon. Nov 12, Steve rated it it was amazing. I've read a couple of biographies of Eisenhower. How is this one different? Like the author who wrote Patton: He masterminded and planned the amphibious assaults of North Africa, Italy, Sicily, and Normandy as well as the invasion of Germany.

He was also a diplomat when American and British commands were tense especially between Patton and Mon I've read a couple of biographies of Eisenhower. He was also a diplomat when American and British commands were tense especially between Patton and Montgomery. I highly recommend this. Jun 30, Cristine rated it liked it. The early years are detailed, intimate and tells the story of the man we know as Ike. The pre-war years, courtship with Mamie provide context to decisions he makes later. The WWII portion is long but feels under-detailed as there was so many things to comment about--of course the book would be longer than War and Peace if it was more specific.

The author appears enthralled with Ike--this make the stor Thorough and interesting book about Eisenhower's early years through WWII surrender of Germany. The author appears enthralled with Ike--this make the stories appear more personal. Criticism is outlined, but there is a respect and love for Eisenhower. Jan 06, Tony added it Shelves: What a great read!

Without a doubt, one of the most interesting and informative books I've ever read on World War II history. Was particularly impressed by what D'Este wrote about Ike's relationships with Bradley and Patton, what actually transpired in the battle of the Falaise Pocket, Bradley's performance leading up to and during the battle of the Buldge, Ike's military decision to halt the Allied armies at the Elbe, the war-long British military pressure upon General Ike as Supreme Allied Com What a great read!

Was particularly impressed by what D'Este wrote about Ike's relationships with Bradley and Patton, what actually transpired in the battle of the Falaise Pocket, Bradley's performance leading up to and during the battle of the Buldge, Ike's military decision to halt the Allied armies at the Elbe, the war-long British military pressure upon General Ike as Supreme Allied Commander, and many others.

Looking forward to the next book by Carlo D'Este. Feb 12, Rob Melich rated it it was amazing. Amazing biography, exhausting research. Way more than most of us need to know about Ike but overall terrific insight into this man charged with saving Europe from Hitler. The analysis of his relationship with his peers turned subordinates, Patton, Bradley, Montgomery, Smith, transforms the leadership myth into concise examples of Ike's persuasive abilities and enormous personal commitment he made to leading the leadership team to victory. At the end it describes his exhaustion, how he survived an Amazing biography, exhausting research.

At the end it describes his exhaustion, how he survived and then had the energy to become president is a story worth the read. Aug 19, Jill rated it really liked it Shelves: I really enjoyed this book. I would have given it a five if it were not for stopping at the end of World War II. I didn't realize that the book didn't cover his later life. It was very detailed about the war which was a little slow, although interesting. Although people are very hard on Eisenhower and his decisions now, it is easy to be critical of a person in hindsight.

He had a great many lives in his hands and who knows how incapacitating that would be if you were truly in his place. I still I really enjoyed this book. I still admire him and all he went through in his life. May 21, Scott rated it liked it Shelves: I must say that I'd hoped I'd get more from this book, but I think the story's incomplete. D'Este's biography of Eisenhower stops at the end of the war in Europe in , but progresses no further, investigating the decisions that he made and the world he helped create when he was elected President in After Patton, D'Este raised my expectations for this book, and I feel a little disappointed.

Jan 30, Mike rated it really liked it Shelves: It is a very good view of early 20th century American military and what it really takes to become a "surpreme commander. If you like history it is a good book to read. Jun 05, Patrick rated it really liked it. Highly recommend to fans of Military History!!!!

May 27, Fred Bomer rated it really liked it. Extremely detailed account of the development of an interesting and intellegent man - complex and VERY human at times. The continual interplay of Politics was very enlightening and telling of what happens in all human endeavors! Aug 12, Jane rated it really liked it Shelves: Thorough, historically accurate, and from what I can tell, fairly unbiased. Eisenhower the soldier led a distinctive life that every officer in the US military can learn a great deal from. Sometimes less is more, D'Este.

Jul 26, Andrew rated it really liked it. Of the books on Ike I've read, this is the most comprehensive on his military career. Jan 14, Michael Wilson rated it it was amazing. An excellent biography of Eisenhower the warrior.

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