THE PARTHIAN INTERPRETER: An Odyssey of the Later Empire

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Other topics include the influence of the Greek colonistson military architecture, and the major impact of the Great Kushans on the spread of Buddhism and on the development of the Central Asian metropolis. And although written documents rarely survive, coinage has provided essential evidence for the political and cultural history of the region. These essays will be of interest to the scholar, the student, and the armchair traveller. The Age Of The Parthians The Parthians were nomadic horse-warriors who left few written records, concentrating rather on a rich oral and storytelling tradition.

What knowledge we have of this remarkable people derives primarily from their coinage, which mixed Hellenism with Persian influences. In this book, distinguished scholars examine - from a variety of perspectives--the origins of the Parthians, their history, religion and culture, as well as perceptions of their empire through the lens of both imperial Rome and China. The Rise and Fall of an Empire In press. This title will be released on February 17, The Sasanians were the last of the ancient Persian dynasties, and the largest empire to espouse Zoroastrianism, before the encounter with the Arabs swept away the pre-Islamic institutions.

Between Rome and Persia: Peter Edwell takes the innovative approach in treating the area in regional terms, giving more nuanced interpretations than are available in broader treatments of the Roman Near East. Rome on the Euphrates and in Mesopotamia ca. Rome and Palmyra ca. From Persepolis to the Punjab. Exploring Ancient Iran Discusses details of Phraates conflict with Tiridates. The text outlines Persia's contributions to world civilization in areas such as mythology, technology, sciences, literature, militaria, the arts, music, architecture and garments. Carrhae, Its Explanation and Aftermath in Plutarch" Bulletin of Parthian and Mixed Oriental Studies , , vol.

These military campaigns in the sphere of East Roman World of influence are also remembered because of Pacoros' youth. Nevertheless, the context of the beardless representation of Pacoros on his coinage remains unclear in many aspects. But it is now possible to present a twofold hypothesis on the career of this young prince: The premise of Magi: A Novel is that the magi of Christmas fame were from the priestly caste of Parthia.

I believe the user group and those interested in Parthian culture will enjoy the historical accuracy of the book. The chief setting of the story in the early chapters is the city of Ctesiphon. Parthian culture, religion, politics, dress, customs, warfare, death rituals, language, coins, geography, and personal names are all described with care and authenticity. The research to complete the manuscript took ten years. Hidden Treasures from the National Museum, Kabul After its tour through Paris, Turin, and Amsterdam, the show was reorganized for the United States and accompanied by this new catalogue.

Authors describe two silver drachms bearing Phraates name, apparently minted on campaign in an eastern area of Parthian empire. The conclusion is that they are coins of Phraates IV during his exile to the east and most probably were minted to pay the Scythian army that helped him regain the throne from Tiridates ca.

Ricerche nel complesso monumentale arsacide I dati raccolti durante questi lavori, gli studi strutturali e le proposte ricostruttive degli edifici indagati, le missioni interdisciplinari di studio, analisi e documentazione sugli oggetti statue in argilla cruda, ceramica, piccoli oggetti, rhyta etc… condotte nei principali musei della capitale turkmena hanno prodotto una cospicua messe di dati - presentati in un volume ricco di illustrazioni e disegni- che permettono di tracciare un quadro complesso di Nisa: Rhyta in pre-islamic Persia: Their origin and variety; their use; Greek influence on their construction after Alexander; major finds In press.

The director of that movie—and now popular historian—Jones Who Murdered Chaucer? Jones attempts to overturn the popular conception of the glorious Roman Empire, which he says is mostly propaganda, and claims that the barbarians—a general term describing the tribes of western and northern Europe, as well as of the Middle East—have for too long been slandered as "savages" by the allegedly more advanced and civilized Romans and their descendants.

Following a sacrifice to Apollo , a snake slithered from the altar to a sparrow's nest in a plane tree nearby. It ate the mother and her nine babies, then was turned to stone. Calchas interpreted this as a sign that Troy would fall in the tenth year of the war. When the Achaeans left for the war, they did not know the way, and accidentally landed in Mysia , ruled by King Telephus , son of Heracles, who had led a contingent of Arcadians to settle there.

The oracle responded, "he that wounded shall heal". The Achaean fleet then set sail and was scattered by a storm. Achilles landed in Scyros and married Deidamia. A new gathering was set again in Aulis. Telephus went to Aulis , and either pretended to be a beggar, asking Agamemnon to help heal his wound, [59] or kidnapped Orestes and held him for ransom, demanding the wound be healed.

Trojan War

Odysseus reasoned that the spear that had inflicted the wound must be able to heal it. Pieces of the spear were scraped off onto the wound, and Telephus was healed. Some scholars have regarded the expedition against Telephus and its resolution as a derivative reworking of elements from the main story of the Trojan War, but it has also been seen as fitting the story-pattern of the "preliminary adventure" that anticipates events and themes from the main narrative, and therefore as likely to be "early and integral".

Eight years after the storm had scattered them, [63] the fleet of more than a thousand ships was gathered again. But when they had all reached Aulis, the winds ceased. The prophet Calchas stated that the goddess Artemis was punishing Agamemnon for killing either a sacred deer or a deer in a sacred grove, and boasting that he was a better hunter than she.

The Achaean forces are described in detail in the Catalogue of Ships , in the second book of the Iliad. They consisted of 28 contingents from mainland Greece, the Peloponnese , the Dodecanese islands, Crete , and Ithaca , comprising pentekonters , ships with 50 rowers. Thucydides says [68] that according to tradition there were about ships, and that the Boeotian ships had men, while Philoctetes ' ships only had the fifty rowers, these probably being maximum and minimum.

These numbers would mean a total force of 70, to , men. Another catalogue of ships is given by the Bibliotheca that differs somewhat but agrees in numbers. Some scholars have claimed that Homer's catalogue is an original Bronze Age document, possibly the Achaean commander's order of operations. Nothing is said of the Trojan language ; the Carians are specifically said to be barbarian-speaking , and the allied contingents are said to have spoken multiple languages, requiring orders to be translated by their individual commanders.

Philoctetes was Heracles ' friend, and because he lit Heracles's funeral pyre when no one else would, he received Heracles' bow and arrows. They stopped either at Chryse Island for supplies, [74] or in Tenedos , along with the rest of the fleet. The wound festered and had a foul smell; on Odysseus's advice, the Atreidae ordered Philoctetes to stay on Lemnos.

While landing on Tenedos, Achilles killed king Tenes , son of Apollo, despite a warning by his mother that if he did so he would be killed himself by Apollo. The embassy was refused. Philoctetes stayed on Lemnos for ten years, which was a deserted island according to Sophocles' tragedy Philoctetes , but according to earlier tradition was populated by Minyans.

Calchas had prophesied that the first Achaean to walk on land after stepping off a ship would be the first to die. Finally, Protesilaus , leader of the Phylaceans , landed first. Hector killed Protesilaus in single combat, though the Trojans conceded the beach. In the second wave of attacks, Achilles killed Cycnus , son of Poseidon. The Trojans then fled to the safety of the walls of their city. The Achaeans besieged Troy for nine years. This part of the war is the least developed among surviving sources, which prefer to talk about events in the last year of the war.

After the initial landing the army was gathered in its entirety again only in the tenth year. Thucydides deduces that this was due to lack of money.

They raided the Trojan allies and spent time farming the Thracian peninsula. Reinforcements continued to come until the very end. The Achaeans controlled only the entrance to the Dardanelles, and Troy and her allies controlled the shortest point at Abydos and Sestus and communicated with allies in Europe.

Achilles and Ajax were the most active of the Achaeans, leading separate armies to raid lands of Trojan allies. According to Homer, Achilles conquered 11 cities and 12 islands. He took also Hypoplacian Thebes and Lyrnessus, and further Antandrus , and many other cities. Kakrides comments that the list is wrong in that it extends too far into the south. Among the loot from these cities was Briseis , from Lyrnessus, who was awarded to him, and Chryseis , from Hypoplacian Thebes, who was awarded to Agamemnon.

Patroclus sold him as a slave in Lemnos, [39] where he was bought by Eetion of Imbros and brought back to Troy. Only 12 days later Achilles slew him, after the death of Patroclus. Ajax son of Telamon laid waste the Thracian peninsula of which Polymestor , a son-in-law of Priam, was king. Polymestor surrendered Polydorus , one of Priam's children, of whom he had custody. He then attacked the town of the Phrygian king Teleutas, killed him in single combat and carried off his daughter Tecmessa.

Numerous paintings on pottery have suggested a tale not mentioned in the literary traditions. At some point in the war Achilles and Ajax were playing a board game petteia. Odysseus was sent to Thrace to return with grain, but came back empty-handed. When scorned by Palamedes , Odysseus challenged him to do better. Palamedes set out and returned with a shipload of grain. Odysseus had never forgiven Palamedes for threatening the life of his son. In revenge, Odysseus conceived a plot [] where an incriminating letter was forged, from Priam to Palamedes, [] and gold was planted in Palamedes' quarters.

The letter and gold were "discovered", and Agamemnon had Palamedes stoned to death for treason. However, Pausanias, quoting the Cypria , says that Odysseus and Diomedes drowned Palamedes, while he was fishing, and Dictys says that Odysseus and Diomedes lured Palamedes into a well, which they said contained gold, then stoned him to death.

Palamedes' father Nauplius sailed to the Troad and asked for justice, but was refused. In revenge, Nauplius traveled among the Achaean kingdoms and told the wives of the kings that they were bringing Trojan concubines to dethrone them. Many of the Greek wives were persuaded to betray their husbands, most significantly Agamemnon's wife, Clytemnestra , who was seduced by Aegisthus , son of Thyestes.

Near the end of the ninth year since the landing, the Achaean army, tired from the fighting and from the lack of supplies, mutinied against their leaders and demanded to return to their homes. According to the Cypria, Achilles forced the army to stay. Chryses , a priest of Apollo and father of Chryseis , came to Agamemnon to ask for the return of his daughter.

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Agamemnon refused, and insulted Chryses , who prayed to Apollo to avenge his ill-treatment. Enraged, Apollo afflicted the Achaean army with plague. Agamemnon was forced to return Chryseis to end the plague, and took Achilles ' concubine Briseis as his own. Enraged at the dishonour Agamemnon had inflicted upon him, Achilles decided he would no longer fight.

He asked his mother, Thetis, to intercede with Zeus, who agreed to give the Trojans success in the absence of Achilles, the best warrior of the Achaeans. After the withdrawal of Achilles, the Achaeans were initially successful. Both armies gathered in full for the first time since the landing. Menelaus and Paris fought a duel, which ended when Aphrodite snatched the beaten Paris from the field. With the truce broken, the armies began fighting again. Diomedes won great renown amongst the Achaeans, killing the Trojan hero Pandaros and nearly killing Aeneas , who was only saved by his mother, Aphrodite.

With the assistance of Athena, Diomedes then wounded the gods Aphrodite and Ares. During the next days, however, the Trojans drove the Achaeans back to their camp and were stopped at the Achaean wall by Poseidon. The next day, though, with Zeus' help, the Trojans broke into the Achaean camp and were on the verge of setting fire to the Achaean ships.

The Parthian Interpreter: An Odyssey of the Later Empire by Michael E. Anderson

An earlier appeal to Achilles to return was rejected, but after Hector burned Protesilaus' ship, he allowed his close friend [] and relative Patroclus to go into battle wearing Achilles' armour and lead his army. Patroclus drove the Trojans all the way back to the walls of Troy, and was only prevented from storming the city by the intervention of Apollo. Patroclus was then killed by Hector, who took Achilles' armour from the body of Patroclus. Achilles, maddened with grief, swore to kill Hector in revenge.

He was reconciled with Agamemnon and received Briseis back, untouched by Agamemnon. He received a new set of arms, forged by the god Hephaestus , and returned to the battlefield. He slaughtered many Trojans, and nearly killed Aeneas, who was saved by Poseidon. Achilles fought with the river god Scamander , and a battle of the gods followed. The Trojan army returned to the city, except for Hector, who remained outside the walls because he was tricked by Athena. Achilles killed Hector, and afterwards he dragged Hector's body from his chariot and refused to return the body to the Trojans for burial.

The Achaeans then conducted funeral games for Patroclus. Afterwards, Priam came to Achilles' tent, guided by Hermes , and asked Achilles to return Hector's body.

The armies made a temporary truce to allow the burial of the dead. The Iliad ends with the funeral of Hector. Shortly after the burial of Hector, Penthesilea , queen of the Amazons , arrived with her warriors. She was purified from this action by Priam, [] and in exchange she fought for him and killed many, including Machaon [] according to Pausanias, Machaon was killed by Eurypylus , [] and according to one version, Achilles himself, who was resurrected at the request of Thetis.

Thersites , a simple soldier and the ugliest Achaean, taunted Achilles over his love [] and gouged out Penthesilea's eyes. While they were away, Memnon of Ethiopia , son of Tithonus and Eos , [] came with his host to help his stepbrother Priam. Zeus weighed the fate of the two heroes; the weight containing that of Memnon sank, [] and he was slain by Achilles. The gods, seeing that he had killed too many of their children, decided that it was his time to die.

He was killed after Paris shot a poisoned arrow that was guided by Apollo. Both versions conspicuously deny the killer any sort of valour, saying Achilles remained undefeated on the battlefield. His bones were mingled with those of Patroclus, and funeral games were held. A great battle raged around the dead Achilles.

Ajax held back the Trojans, while Odysseus carried the body away. Agamemnon, unwilling to undertake the invidious duty of deciding between the two competitors, referred the dispute to the decision of the Trojan prisoners, inquiring of them which of the two heroes had done most harm to the Trojans. A girl said that Ajax was braver:. For Aias took up and carried out of the strife the hero, Peleus' son: To this another replied by Athena's contrivance: Why, what is this you say? A thing against reason and untrue! Even a woman could carry a load once a man had put it on her shoulder; but she could not fight.

For she would fail with fear if she should fight.

Scholiast on Aristophanes, Knights and Aristophanes ib. According to Pindar, the decision was made by secret ballot among the Achaeans. Driven mad with grief, Ajax desired to kill his comrades, but Athena caused him to mistake the cattle and their herdsmen for the Achaean warriors. After the tenth year, it was prophesied [] that Troy could not fall without Heracles' bow, which was with Philoctetes in Lemnos.

Odysseus and Diomedes [] retrieved Philoctetes, whose wound had healed. Deiphobus prevailed, and Helenus abandoned Troy for Mt. Calchas said that Helenus knew the prophecies concerning the fall of Troy, so Odysseus waylaid Helenus. The Greeks retrieved Pelop's bones, [] and sent Odysseus to retrieve Neoptolemus, who was hiding from the war in King Lycomedes 's court in Scyros. Odysseus gave him his father's arms. He killed Machaon [] and Peneleos, [] but was slain by Neoptolemus.

Disguised as a beggar, Odysseus went to spy inside Troy, but was recognized by Helen. Homesick, [] Helen plotted with Odysseus. Later, with Helen's help, Odysseus and Diomedes stole the Palladium. The end of the war came with one final plan. Odysseus devised a new ruse—a giant hollow wooden horse, an animal that was sacred to the Trojans. It was built by Epeius and guided by Athena, [] from the wood of a cornel tree grove sacred to Apollo, [] with the inscription:. The hollow horse was filled with soldiers [] led by Odysseus.

The rest of the army burned the camp and sailed for Tenedos. When the Trojans discovered that the Greeks were gone, believing the war was over, they "joyfully dragged the horse inside the city", [] while they debated what to do with it. Some thought they ought to hurl it down from the rocks, others thought they should burn it, while others said they ought to dedicate it to Athena.

The Achaeans entered the city and killed the sleeping population. A great massacre followed which continued into the day. Blood ran in torrents, drenched was all the earth, As Trojans and their alien helpers died. Here were men lying quelled by bitter death All up and down the city in their blood. The Trojans, fuelled with desperation, fought back fiercely, despite being disorganized and leaderless.

With the fighting at its height, some donned fallen enemies' attire and launched surprise counterattacks in the chaotic street fighting. Other defenders hurled down roof tiles and anything else heavy down on the rampaging attackers. The outlook was grim though, and eventually the remaining defenders were destroyed along with the whole city. Neoptolemus killed Priam, who had taken refuge at the altar of Zeus of the Courtyard. Ajax the Lesser raped Cassandra on Athena's altar while she was clinging to her statue.

Because of Ajax's impiety, the Acheaens, urged by Odysseus, wanted to stone him to death, but he fled to Athena's altar, and was spared. Antenor , who had given hospitality to Menelaus and Odysseus when they asked for the return of Helen, and who had advocated so, was spared, along with his family. The Greeks then burned the city and divided the spoils. Cassandra was awarded to Agamemnon.

The Achaeans [] threw Hector's infant son Astyanax down from the walls of Troy, [] either out of cruelty and hate [] or to end the royal line, and the possibility of a son's revenge. Aethra , Theseus ' mother, and one of Helen's handmaids, [] was rescued by her grandsons, Demophon and Acamas. The gods were very angry over the destruction of their temples and other sacrilegious acts by the Achaeans, and decided that most would not return home.

A storm fell on the returning fleet off Tenos island. Additionally, Nauplius, in revenge for the murder of his son Palamedes, set up false lights in Cape Caphereus also known today as Cavo D'Oro, in Euboea and many were shipwrecked. According to the Odyssey , Menelaus 's fleet was blown by storms to Crete and Egypt , where they were unable to sail away due to calm winds. Proteus also told Menelaus that he was destined for Elysium Heaven after his death. Menelaus returned to Sparta with Helen eight years after he had left Troy.

Agamemnon returned home with Cassandra to Argos. His wife Clytemnestra Helen's sister was having an affair with Aegisthus , son of Thyestes , Agamemnon's cousin who had conquered Argos before Agamemnon himself retook it. Possibly out of vengeance for the death of Iphigenia , Clytemnestra plotted with her lover to kill Agamemnon. Cassandra foresaw this murder, and warned Agamemnon, but he disregarded her. He was killed, either at a feast or in his bath, [] according to different versions.

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Cassandra was also killed. Odysseus ' ten-year journey home to Ithaca was told in Homer 's Odyssey.

Odysseus and his men were blown far off course to lands unknown to the Achaeans; there Odysseus had many adventures, including the famous encounter with the Cyclops Polyphemus , and an audience with the seer Teiresias in Hades. On the island of Thrinacia , Odysseus' men ate the cattle sacred to the sun-god Helios.

For this sacrilege Odysseus' ships were destroyed, and all his men perished. Odysseus had not eaten the cattle, and was allowed to live; he washed ashore on the island of Ogygia , and lived there with the nymph Calypso.

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After seven years, the gods decided to send Odysseus home; on a small raft, he sailed to Scheria , the home of the Phaeacians , who gave him passage to Ithaca. Once in his home land, Odysseus traveled disguised as an old beggar. He was recognised by his dog, Argos , who died in his lap.

He then discovered that his wife, Penelope , had been faithful to him during the 20 years he was absent, despite the countless suitors that were eating his food and spending his property. With the help of his son Telemachus , Athena, and Eumaeus , the swineherd, he killed all of them except Medon , who had been polite to Penelope, and Phemius , a local singer who had only been forced to help the suitors against Penelope.

Penelope tested Odysseus and made sure it was him, and he forgave her.

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The next day the suitors' relatives tried to take revenge on him but they were stopped by Athena. The Telegony picks up where the Odyssey leaves off, beginning with the burial of the dead suitors, and continues until the death of Odysseus. Odysseus, attempting to fight off the attack, was killed by his unrecognized son. After Telegonus realized he had killed his father, he brought the body to his mother Circe, along with Telemachus and Penelope.

Circe made them immortal; then Telegonus married Penelope and Telemachus married Circe. Writing during the time of Augustus , Virgil has his hero give a first-person account of the fall of Troy in the second of the Aeneid 's twelve books; the Trojan Horse, which does not appear in "The Iliad", became legendary from Virgil's account. Aeneas leads a group of survivors away from the city, among them his son Ascanius also known as Iulus , his trumpeter Misenus , father Anchises , the healer Iapyx , his faithful sidekick Achates , and Mimas as a guide.

His wife Creusa is killed during the sack of the city. Aeneas also carries the Lares and Penates of Troy, which the historical Romans claimed to preserve as guarantees of Rome's own security. The Trojan survivors escape with a number of ships, seeking to establish a new homeland elsewhere. They land in several nearby countries that prove inhospitable, and are finally told by an oracle that they must return to the land of their forebears.

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