Das Sprichwort und der Spruch: Genese, Verwendung und Herleitung (German Edition)

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In contrast to attributes the relations between subjects and objects are external attributes. A graphical visiulization of the attributes hierarchy is documented under Attribute Taxonomy. The following list of SROP relations shows the. GeburtsOrt for natural persons. In our proposal for an upmost ontology we argue that their are two base layers in ontologies, the layer of abstract concepts and the layer of instances. Abstract concepts are classes, relations, methods and attributes and the instance layer contains the instances of all of the abstraction concepts. The abstract layers serves so to say as the blue print for the instantiation.

Here we explain especially the concept of instances for classes, relations and methods. Each of the abstract and instance concepts can be aggregated into sets, e. The class meta schema provides a blue print for the instantiation. Instances can have internal attributes and instance relations. We recommend to use our conventions for naming instance with Instance-Acronyms.

The following graph visualises part of the instance representation of the natural person "Albert Einstein". Typically an instance from our point of view is the manifestation of something, which typically can be identified by a serial number, a bar code or something similiar to it. So an instance always has a unique identity. If two instances have the same attribute value and the same relations, then it is very likely, that they are the same and can be merged into one instance.

From time to time is makes sense to "clone" an instance and then change some of the attributes or relations to differentiate the new instance from the original one. This saves time in creating subjects. The schema for the creation of an instance is the definition of the class or in the case of multiple inheritance a set of classes from the same class hierarchy taxonomy.

If an instance could be "intantiated" then it would no longer be an instance. From our point of view, it must be a class. On the contrary, not everything which has an attribute value is necessary the instance of a class. Also one would have to copy the whole blue print from cell to cell every time and that can not be the idea of abstraction. We can also look at this problem from the view of a database programmer.

Of course one could clone a row to create a new row. But this is already done in the context of the table schema. If a tuple could really instantiate another tuple of that very table, then it would have to create some kind of sub tuple which makes no sense from our point of view. Over the time one natural person can have had several wifes e. In certain cultures, one can have also several wifes at the same time.

A method of a class is the blue print for functions, activities or processes , which can be executed by on instances of that class. The implementation of a method is kind of an algorithmic description, which steps have to be executed to realize the method. The instance of a method is then e. Instances of methods are abstract entities always, but they or respectivly their funtionary or agent can produce a result or a product.

One instance of it would be a person going to a teller machine and getting money. A physical quantity is a physical property that can be quantified by measurement. Relations establish connections between instances of classes namely subjects and objects. Instance relations are relationships between instances. Rules serve to infer information from other information. They may have one or more conditions and actions and one conclusion hypothesis. Ontology4 provides inference engine capabilities by means of the built-in OQL and PQL query languages in way known from the field of artificial intelligence.

Especially when it comes to the visualization of rules as OntoGraphs, the visual thinking metaphor gets is special meaning for the representation of knowledge engineering aspects. A domain is an area of the real an non real world. A domain can have subdomains. Mereologies are orthogonal to Taxonomies and model hierarchies of part-whole relations composition, aggregation The relational model is a data model which represents information and the relationship between subjects as flat tables.

There are no means to represent hierarchies without additional conventions. Here is a proposal for such conventions:. Througout Ontology4 the term relationship is used to represent the relation between subjects and objects. Technically this is done by using SROP relations which are the mathematical counterpart. In contrast to Doug Lenat propositon "Everything is an object", here it is claimed "Everything is a relationship".

A subject without a relationship simply does not exist. In the cases where the relation name contains a noun one can use the following naming convention: Unlike in relational database systems referential integrity in Ontology4 is much more easy to be kept. On the abstract level transitive relations can be recognized by the fact, that source and target concept are the same, e. For a car to move by itself, definiately a motor is required and it would have to have at least 3 tires. This does imply also, that if the car is scrapped, then automatically motor and tires disappear. The concept of an " integrated whole " can also be stated in terms of a system embodying a set of relationships which are differentiated from relationships of the set to other elements, and from relationships between an element of the set and elements not a part of the relational regime.

A taxonomy is the hierarchy of classes starting with a given base class. The following example shows as an automated teller process as an example for a business process. The name of a decision process step is prefexid by a question mark, e. Depending on the answer of the question the next process step is chosen. The name of an action process step is preceded with an exclamation mark, e.

The following process chain has been modeled on the base of the graphic provided by Andreas Schmidt. A first attempt is made to model most of the important ontology concepts. The target is to deliver a set of base concepts and their relations. Concept-Equivalences are worked out separately to identify similar and equivilant concepts.

A PDF-file with the concept graph can be downloaded here. In this section we try to identify ontology concepts, which are identical, similar, inverse, reciproke, opposite, orthogonal or functionally equivalent. At present following relations have been identified:. Classes and Subclasses Instances of subjects which have the same groups of attributes in common, are grouped in classes and subclasses. Table View of Natural Persons. Vehicle Class Hierarchy with Multiple Inheritance The example of the class hierarchy of vehicles shows typical aspects of multiple inheritance: Alexander Dibelius, Michael Schild, Prof.

Insbesondere sollen dabei die leistungsstarken Visualisierung-Komponenten der Hyperbolic-Trees und der Netzwerkgraphen zum Einsatz kommen. Management Eckard Heidloff, Dr. Auf Basis von cms2web wurde die Wissensmanagement-Workbench Ontology4 entwickelt. Referenzen Derzeit betreut die bense. Title The emerging water steam is used to boost a turbine. Like identity, OntoClean does not require that the relation itself be specified, often it is enough to know that the relation exists. Attribute is Besitz Attribute is Relation Relation.

Description Object of the relation. Description Subject of the relation. Description Name of the relation between subject and object. Description Creator of the relation. Wilson, Thorkild Jacobsen und William A. Hermann Hunger und Hans Hirsch Hgg. Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale in Wien 6. Schulunterricht in Babylonien im ersten Jahrtausend v. Alter Orient und Altes Testament, The Domestication of the Savage Mind. Die Namen der Keilschriftzeichen.

Samuel Noah Kramer Fund: Assyrian and Babylonian Letters. Handbuch der altorientalischen Geisteskultur. Manfried Dietrich und Oswald Loretz Hgg. Carmen Blacker und Michael Loewe Hgg. Karel van Lerberghe und Gabriela Voet Hgg. Aleida Assmann und Jan Assmann Hgg. Ancient Rhetorical Theories of Simile and Comparison. Enmerkara und der Herr von Arata. Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Pontificium Institutum Biblicum de Urbe. Presses Universitaires de France: Wisdom, Revelation, and Doubt: Perspectives on the First Millennium B.

Portrait of a Dead Civilization. La naissance de la science. La science orientale avant les Grecs. La jeunesse de la science grecque.

Websites To Download Books For Nook.

Problems in the Classification of Mesopotamian Divination as Science. Le conflit du Christianisme primitif et de la civilisation antique. Kultur und Denken der Babylonier und Juden. Die Entdeckung des Geistes. Klasse, Sitzungsberichte , 1. Johann Georg Prinz von Hohenzollern Hg. Zwischen Tradition und Innovation. Queries to the Sungod. Die Bildersprache der akkadischen Epik. Elementary Education at Nippur. The Lists of Trees and Wooden Objects. Bert Roest und Herman L. Margalit Finkelberg und Christoph Markschies Hgg.

Literary and Religious Canons in the Ancient World.

Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences: Sie spielt in vielen Werken des Corpus Hippocraticum eine Rolle, und es befassen sich sogar mehrere Werke speziell mit diesem Thema. Richtig betont Burkert, dass das verbindende Element die Deutung von Zeichen ist. Werke, die bereits von ihrem Titel her auf eine prognostische Thematik verweisen, sind vor allem: Weil aber die Menschen nun einmal sterben Entscheidend ist der erstgenannte Aspekt der gesteigerten Reputation.

Dies muss vor dem Hintergrund eines in keiner Weise regulierten Gesundheitswesens gesehen werden, das ohne staatliche Approbationen oder eine vergleichbare staatliche Aufsicht auskommen musste. Diese Formulierung ist erstaunlich: Warum unser Autor aber auch die Vergangenheit mit einbezieht, erhellt aus dem Fortgang des Satzes: It contains a conscious recognition, possibly the earliest in Western literature, of the universality of scientific law.

Das Wissen des Arztes bezieht sich also auf alle drei Zeitstufen und ist somit allumfassend. In the absence of written record, the ability to see into the distant past is no less marvellous than the ability to see into the future, and there is no reason for a sharp distinction between the two. Neither is possible without some form of divine revelation, for only the gods have the necessary first-hand knowledge cf.

Thus the knowledge of either a poet as here or a prophet as Calchas in Il. Immerhin macht der Dichter des Prometheus damit deutlich, dass er die Medizin und die Mantik als zwei elementare Kunstfertigkeiten des Menschen versteht. Zeichenbereich und Bedeutung stehen also auf derselben Ebene: In der Mantik ist diese Beziehung weit weniger eng. Bezogen werden sie aber auf den Bereich menschlichen Handelns, der mit den Opfertieren selbst gar nichts zu tun hat, wenn etwa vor einer Schlacht aus der Leberschau die Erfolgsaussichten diviniert werden.

Es ist nicht ganz klar, ob es sich um eine Genre-Szene oder die Abbildung einer mythologischen Vorlage handelt. Jedenfalls scheint der die Leber inspizierende Krieger kein professioneller Seher zu sein, sondern eher wie Xenophon vgl. Und das eine treffen sie sc.

Und das Beten ist auch gut. Damit verweist der hippokratische Autor auf die typisch griechische Doppelung der Handlungsimpulse: Wenn das aber vertauscht ist, wird die Krankheit schlechter ausgehen. Es geht um den Schlaf des Patienten. Zugleich erfahren wir das generelle prognostische Prinzip: Im Folgenden wird das schlechte Zeichen der Normabweichung differenziert: Adverbien, die eine Abstufung innerhalb des schlechten Verlaufs vornehmen. Die Ausdrucksweise ist variiert: Diese besonders schlechte Prognose wird durch das einfache Futur als sehr sicher hingestellt.

Insgesamt wird das prognostische Indiz des Schlafverhaltens sehr allgemein abgehandelt. Dies folgt der allgemeinen Tendenz des Prognostikon, die im Schlusskapitel 25 noch einmal betont wird. So etwa ganz am Anfang 1, 5. I keine Parallele in den Koischen Prognosen haben 7, 23, 52, 62, 65, 71, 72, 84, 98, 99, , , , , , und Insgesamt scheinen die Koischen Prognosen eine allgemeinere Tendenz zu verfolgen 5. Werden alle Patienten mit diesen aktuellen Symptomen bald darauf delirieren? Dies ist eine Frage, die nur der Arzt durch weitere Beobachtungen am Einzelfall entscheiden kann.

Wie auch bei Archekrates. Meist steht es am Satzende. Es geht also meist um Verbindungen verschiedener Symptome, die prognostisch als Verschlechterung gewertet werden. Die Parallele zu Prorrhetikos I, 13 vgl. Die meisten dieser Punkte sind unklar. Sokrates ist einen bedeutenden Schritt weiter, denn er ist sich bewusst, nichts Spezifisches zu wissen, und macht keinen Hehl daraus. Platon, Apologie 21 B 1—23 C 1. Charakteristisch scheint aber die Formulierung der Frage zu sein: Solche Geschichten haben Platon in der Apologie sicher inspiriert.

Soll man in den Krieg ziehen oder nicht? Auch der sei unsicher gewesen und habe geraten, in Delphi anzufragen 3,1,6: Auch solche Anfragen scheinen typisch gewesen zu sein. Prorrhetikos I, 5. Orakelanfragen erwachsen aus einer ganz anderen Situation als medizinische Prognosen. Wie bei Xenophon wird nicht eine Handlungsalternative zur Bewertung vorgelegt, sondern eine bereits getroffene Entscheidung noch einmal abgesichert.

Den medizinischen Autoren ist die Parallele der Prognose zur Mantik nicht entgangen, wie dies schon anhand von De diaeta 4 gezeigt wurde. Die Hippokratische Schrift Prognostikon. Sarah Iles Johnston und Peter T. Die Fragmente der Vorsokratiker. De divinatione per somnum. The Seer in Ancient Greece. University of California Press.

Its Responses and Operations, with a Catalogue of Responses. Byl Corpus Medicorum Graecorum I, 2, 4. Thucydidis Historiae recognovit brevique adnotatione critica instruxit H. Tome I, 2e Partie: Zweiter Beitrag zur Chronologie der echten Hippokratischen Schriften. Xenophontis Opera omnia, recognovit brevique adnotatione critica instruxit E. Homeri Opera recognoverunt brevique adnotatione critica instruxerunt D. Fragmenta selecta ediderunt R. Editio altera cum appendice nova fragmentorum. Studies in Ancient Divination. Die von mir genutzten Quellen stammen somit als Handschriften im Wesentlichen aus dem 1.

Im Detail ergibt sich dabei folgender Befund: Nunmehr kann es an die innere Struktur der Traktate gehen. Divination als Wissenschaft 73 pCarlsberg 14 vs. Auch die Tieromina zeigen eine derartige systematische Anordnung. Vergleichbare Erscheinungen finden sich in den astrologischen Traktaten, in denen z. Astrologische Traktate gehen jeweils systematisch in standardisierter Abfolge entweder die Position eines Planeten in jedem Haus bzw.

Er wird ein gutes hohes Alter erreichen. Als Beispiel aus den terrestrischen Omina genannt sei etwa: Die erste ist der normale Konditionalis des Demotischen, der mit Substantiven n-n. Gerade das Nebeneinander in den divinatorischen Traktaten macht die Sache nicht leichter. Relativ selten ist der einfache Imperativ in der Form HrH r. Die inzwischen bekannten demotischen Gesetzestexte31 zeigen zwei Arten der Formulierung. Insgesamt gesehen gibt es kleine Unterschiede zwischen den kasuistischen Omentexten und den Gesetzestexten.

Er wird mit einer Frau wirr gehen. Als Hauptmittel der Divination kann man zwei Verfahren erkennen, mit denen aus den Vorzeichen selbst eine Deutung generiert wird. Dagegen dominiert in allen anderen Bereichen die symbolischallegorische Ausdeutung. Sie ist auf jeden Fall einen genaueren Blick wert, weil sich darin jenseits der generellen Einstufung auch zeigt, wie diese Denkweise konkret funktioniert. In einem noch unpublizierten Traumbuch pCarlsberg vs. Der Traum von frischem Fisch zeigt an, dass einem Geheimnisse offenbart werden. Diese sind im Allgemeinen schwieriger zu analysieren, da man mehr unterschiedliche Faktoren einbeziehen muss, nicht nur die Tierart an sich, sondern auch das konkrete Verhalten bzw.

Die Lippen werden mit Verleumdung bzw. Die Schultern werden gerne mit dem Tragen bzw. Divination als Wissenschaft 81 Arbeit bezeichnen. Wenn die Tiere dagegen Speise nicht direkt fressen, sondern davontragen, wird mit Verlust, Mangel und schlechter Versorgung gerechnet. Der Kontakt eines Tieres mit einer menstruierenden Frau ist ein sicheres Anzeichen baldiger Schwangerschaft. Ein recht plakativer Symbolismus ist es, wenn vom Herauskommen einer Maus zwischen den Beinen einer Frau auf ein Kind geschlossen wird.

Die Richtungsdimension rechts bzw. Ausgangspunkt ist dabei die am mesopotamischen Omenmaterial gewonnene Erkenntnis, dass bei Missgeburtsvorzeichen eine Missbildung rechts schlecht, links gut ist, zwei Missbildungen dagegen rechts gut, links schlecht. Sie ist eine deutlich komplexere intellektuelle Arbeit als die reine Reduktion auf den lautlichen Klang eines Wortes. Allerdings sollte man auch die Grenzen eines solchen Verfahrens herausstreichen, die eben dazu beigetragen haben, dass es heute nicht mehr wissenschaftlich akzeptabel ist.

Vor allem eine Wortverwendung ist mir aufgefallen: Einige Beispiele sollen seine Verwendung illustrieren: Allerdings kann es auch auf erneuerte Statuen WB I: Nunmehr kann ich insgesamt zusammenfassen: Die divinatorischen Traktate wurden von der indigenen intellektuellen Elite genutzt und zusammen mit Kompositionen unbezweifelbar wissenschaftlicher Art gelagert. Ihre kasuistische Struktur macht sie etwa mit Gesetzestexten vergleichbar.

Papyrus Finds at Tebtunis from the Bagnani Archives. Paul John Frandsen Hg. The Legal Manual of Hermopolis [P. Section des sciences religieuses: Hieratic Papyri in the British Museum.

Class Hierarchy of ^natPerson with Attributes and Methods

Die Opferschau in Assur. Der Kampf um den Panzer des Inaros. Parker Presented at the Occasion of his 78th Birthday December 10, University Press of New England: Was ist der Codex Hammurabi? Axel Karenberg und Christian Leitz Hgg. Geburt, Seuche und Traumdeutung in den antiken Zivilisationen des Mittelmeerraumes. Ein demotisches juristisches Lehrbuch: Juni Studia Demotica, 6. Tebtynis und Soknopaiou Nesos. Akten des internationalen Symposions vom Weidner und Michael P.

Festschrift Johannes Jahn zum Elke Blumenthal und Siegfried Herrmann Hgg. Threat-Formulae in Ancient Egypt. Decans, Planets, Constellations and Zodiacs. Istituto di studi del Vicino Oriente. Kasia Maria Szpakowska Hg. Magic, Dreams, and Prophecy in Ancient Egypt.

Classical Press of Wales: Bernd Janowski und Gernot Wilhelm Hgg. Didier Devauchelle und Ghislaine Widmer Hgg. The Carlsberg Papyri The Carlsberg Papyri 4. Sandra Lippert und Maren Schentuleit Hgg. Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften. Demotic Grammar in the Ptolemaic Sacerdotal Decrees. Verzeichnis der Buch- und Spruchtitel und der Temini technici. The Rituals of the Diviner Bibliotheca Mesopotamica, Dreams and Nightmares in Ancient Egypt. Classical Press of Wales. The Laws of Eshnunna. Id autem in architecturae conscriptionibus non potest fieri, quod vocabula ex artis propria necessitate concepta inconsueto sermone obiciunt sensibus obscuritatem.

Cum ergo ea per se non sint aperta nec pateant eorum in consuetudine nomina, tum etiam praeceptorum late vagantes scripturae, si non contrahentur et paucis et perlucidis sententiis explicentur, frequentia multitudineque sermonis inpediente incertas legentium efficient cogitationes. Tiberiana appellantur, quae maxime Tiberio principi placuere; colorantur magis sole grandescuntque, alioqui eadem essent, quae Liceriana.

Doch wie dem auch sei: Lucullus consul fuit, qui nomen, ut ex re apparet, Luculleo marmori dedit, admodum delectatus illo, primusque Romam invexit, atrum alioqui, cum cetera maculis aut coloribus commendentur.

Synonyms and antonyms of Priamel in the German dictionary of synonyms

Buch seiner Naturalis historia folgende Gruppen: Vergleichbares findet sich bei seinem Zeitgenossen Pedanios Dioskurides. Heracleon vocant et ab Hercule inventum tradunt Chironium cognominatur ab inventore , Im konkreten Fall geht es Plinius jedoch um mehr als die Demonstration eines redlichen Umgangs mit seinen Vorlagen. WIESE ipsius genera lapidumque vel numerosiore serie, plurimis singula a Graecis praecipue voluminibus tractata.

Est et formicarum genus venenatum, non fere in Italia. Solipugas Cicero appellat, salpugas Baetica. Es gibt auch eine giftige Art von Ameisen, nicht nur in Italien. Milipeda, ab aliis centipeda aut multipeda dicta, animal est e vermibus terrae, pilosum, multis pedibus arcuatim repens tactuque contrahens se; oniscon Graeci vocant, alii iulon. Die Normierung bezieht sich auf die klare Definition der Begriffe bzw.

Es gibt viele Arten von Eichen. Sie unterscheiden sich durch die Frucht, den Standort, das Geschlecht und den Geschmack. Andererseits ist es immerhin bemerkenswert, dass er das Nichtvorhandensein lateinischer Entsprechungen zu griechischem 22 Celsus, De med. Eine solche Art von Humor, die darauf angelegt ist, die potentielle Gefahr zu verschleiern, die dem Designatum innewohnt, lehnt Plinius strikt ab.

Die schwerste von ihnen sc. Seine Missbilligung hat also auch hier eine ethische Basis und dient wie schon zuvor — wenn auch mit anderer Gewichtung — der Untermauerung seiner Selbststilisierung als Wissenschaftler mit festen moralischen Prinzipien. Unklarheit der Bedeutung eines Terminus Selten kommt es bei Plinius vor, dass er einen Begriff nicht der entsprechenden Sache oder Lebewesen zuordnen kann. Namentlich kritisiert wird in diesem Abschnitt Nepos. Chrysippus philosophus tradidit phryganion adalligatum remedio esse quartanis.

In gewisser Hinsicht wird der Leser hier zum Mitforschen aufgefordert und terminologische Wissenschaft als ein offener Prozess verstanden. Solche Beispiele demonstrieren, dass der Verfasser der Naturalis historia, der sein Werk auch sonst mit zahlreichen moralischen Diskursen wie z. Lucius Iunius Moderatus Columella: On the Characteristics of Animals.

With an English translation. Pedanii Dioscuridis Anazarbei De materia medica libri quinque. Plini Secundi Naturalis historiae Liber Secundus. Studi sulla lingua di Plinio il Vecchio. Histoire naturelle Livre XXX. Das Fachwort in unserem Sprachalltag. Terminologie in Theorie und Praxis. Einstellungen lateinischer Autoren zu ihrer Muttersprache. Wissen, Kommunikation und Selbstdarstellung. De breviloquentia Pliniana quaestiones selectae. Eigennamen in der Fachkommunikation Leipziger Fachsprachenstudien, Studi offerti a Francesco Della Corte.

Healy, Pliny the Elder on Science and Technology. Medical Latin in the Roman Empire. In Plinii Maioris Naturalem historiam studia grammatica semantica critica. Roman Attitudes to the Greeks. His work was adapted by Aratus of Soli in Cilicia; ca. By considering ancient translations, and re-translations, of a scientific text, I hope to contribute to our exploration of the types of problems confronting translators and their readers.

One of the aims of Annette Imhausen and Tanja Pommerening has been to encourage attempts to determine characteristic features of individual sciences in antiquity as revealed in their texts, and to consider how these texts can be distinguished from non-scientific texts. The ancient translations of the Phainomena provide a particularly rich opportunity to explore a number of relevant issues, specifically translation from one genre prose to another poetry , translation across language from Greek to Latin , and translations created with different cultural motivations, including the desire to produce a work of poetry and an up-to-date scientific text.

While Aratus wrote other poems, the Phainomena is his only extant work. The popularity of his Phainomena was widespread and long-lived, becoming one of the most widely read poems in the ancient world, after the Homeric Iliad and Odyssey. In antiquity, at least twenty-seven separate commentaries were written on the poem, and it was one of only a very few Greek poems translated into Arabic.

Nevertheless, even if the astronomical information contained in the poem was not always accurate, its popularity ensured that the information conveyed there reached a very wide audience. In composing his poem, Aratus utilised a prose work by Eudoxus of Cnidos, known also as the Phainomena, which contained detailed information about the constellations; this provided the basis for the first part of the poem. The argument presented here incorporates and builds on some of the material I studied, to a different end, in TAUB I am grateful to Annette Imhausen and Tanja Pommerening for inviting me to participate in the symposium, to Niall Caldwell, Aude Doody and Laurence Totelin for their reading of an earlier draft, and to participants of the symposium for their comments.

I thank Newnham College for supporting my research, and Birgit Jordan and Emma Perkins for helping to prepare this paper for publication. Translating the Phainomena across genre, language and culture Hipparchus refers to it in his commentary on the works of both Eudoxus and Aratus. This section is concerned with signs of weather and may be derived from another work, possibly that known as On Weather Signs, by an unknown author, who may have been Theophrastus.

They suggest Eudoxus may have been the author of On Weather Signs or have made extensive use of it himself. Having said that, both ancient and modern scholars recognise that Aratus also had a poetic model, as well as prose source s ; in antiquity, Kallimachos and others have pointed to Hesiod. Kallimachos, Epigram 27; cf. For example, the meter used for didactic poetry was typically the epic hexameter, a choice that automatically signaled an affinity with other epic poets, including Homer and Hesiod.

Meaning of "Priamel" in the German dictionary

Let us begin with Zeus, the power we mortals never leave Unsaluted. His children are we. Him therefore men propitiate first and last. Hail, father, mighty marvel! Thyself and those who begot thee! And ye too, muses, Gracious influences, hail! Aratus, Phainomena 1—18, trans. I have chosen this translation to give a sense of the poetic form of the work; further translations of the Phainomena used here are by KIDD Translating the Phainomena across genre, language and culture With what may be regarded as a dedication and hymn to Zeus, Aratus asserts the orderly arrangement of the heavens, credited to the beneficence of Zeus himself.

It is this orderly arrangement of the sky and its signs which allows its use as the basis of an agricultural almanac. However, as becomes clear, the value of such astronomical signs is not limited to time-telling; in fact, Toohey has suggested that the primary aim of the poem is actually to aid in weather prediction: And, for Aratus, astronomy offers the best means of weather prediction;15 he provides astronomical information with an eye to its usefulness for this task.

The first section of the poem lines 1— , concentrating on astronomy, sets the groundwork for the information specifically relevant to weather. When the moon with slender horns is sighted in the west, she declares a waxing month. He lines — explains that You too know all these for by now the nineteen cycles of the shining sun are all celebrated together , all the constellations that night revolves from the belt 13 KIDD Therefore take pains to learn them. And if ever you entrust yourself to a ship, be concerned to find out all the signs that are provided anywhere of stormy winds or a hurricane at sea.

The effort is slight, but enormous is later the benefit of being observant to the man who is always on his guard: But while Aratus repeatedly admonishes his readers to take care to learn about astronomy and weather signs, emphasizing their usefulness, there are questions about his intended audience.

Questioning the didactic aim of the poem, Alexander Dalzell has made some interesting remarks: No one is named in the poem, but an anonymous addressee is constantly being urged to take notice and pay attention. Farmers and sailors are the two groups who would benefit most from the information which the poem provides, and their needs are kept constantly before us. But the poem is not addressed to them. All we know about the addressee is that he might undertake a voyage and that he is expected to be familiar with the astronomical 16 17 18 19 Aratus, Phainomena, trans.

See also TAUB Translating the Phainomena across genre, language and culture details of the Metonic cycle. The large part which they play in the poem is more likely a conscious attempt to establish a link with Hesiod, who dealt both with farming and with seafaring. But, Aratus did not target his poem towards readers with extensive knowledge or experience of astronomy, or its practical uses.

Rather, Phainomena presupposes one kind of reader and is addressed to another, a situation typical of didactic poetry in general. The didactic poet speaks over the head of the formal addressee to a broader audience, whose identity must be reconstructed. The translation — or transformation — of scientific ideas from a specific prose author or work into a didactic poem was undertaken by a number of other poets, working in Latin as well as Greek.

The following lines seem to refer not to the Metonic cycle but rather to the year. See also MAIR See also BING , especially The epistolary format was deliberate: In contrast to this, Lucretius believed that poetry was a more powerful format than prose: Aratus may be an earlier example of the honeyed-cup approach. But the educational intent and value of such a poem do not exist separately from the aesthetic dimension of such works, which were clearly intended to offer enjoyment as well as enlightenment and education.

The use of poetic conventions such as epic hexameter indicates that Aratus was mindful of the expectations of readers and auditors. A later author, Columella first century CE , presented a discussion of the cultivation of gardens in De re rustica in two formats, in verse in Book 10 and prose in Book 11 , designed to appeal to different, specific, readers who are named in the work.

Although this translation does not survive in its entirety, Cicero himself quotes passages from his translation of the section on weather signs, situating them within a more general discussion of divination of various sorts, in his dialogue On Divination. In the dialogue, Cicero and his brother Quintus discuss various types of divination practiced by Greeks, Romans, and Chaldeans.

Hipparchus, in his commentary, is critical of Attalus. Quintus considers the use of weather signs at some length, but makes it clear that this is not, strictly, a type of divination. He quotes a passage at 1. He regards trained specialists as having knowledge and skills unknown to diviners. In some cases, such specialists do engage in prediction of a particular type; for example, physicians predict the course of disease and sailors must judge weather conditions. Cicero asks Quintus 2. The weather signs quoted from Aratus are given as examples of phenomena, things which are observed.

Aratus is chosen as a well-known and well-regarded source of information on weather signs. The identity of the person responsible for this version has been the subject of much scholarly debate. Many scholars, including Mark Possanza, have accepted the attribution to Germanicus, the elder son of Nero Claudius Drusus and Antonia, who was adopted a common Roman practice by his uncle, the emperor Tiberius. Cicero, De divinatione, 2. In addition to his political and military career, Germanicus found time to pursue literary interests, and produced a number of works, including Greek comedies now lost.

The work may be regarded, to some extent, as a paraphrase, rather than as a direct translation. The opening lines and dedication of the poem echo and, indeed, name Aratus directly, but also point to distinct differences between the interests of the two authors: Aratus began with mighty Jupiter. My poem, however, claims you, father, greatest of all, as its inspirer.

It is you that I reverence; it is to you that I am offering sacred gifts, the first fruits of my literary efforts. Whether Germanicus was relying on another source here is not clear; these fragments may be based on his own work and interests. What power would there be in the points which mark for certain the seasons of the year, the one where the violent sun turns around in the sign of the burning Crab, the one where he grazes the opposite turning post in chill Capricorn, or those where the Ram and the Balance make the two divisions of the day equal, if the gaining of peace under your leadership had not allowed ships to sail the level sea, the farmer to till the land and the sound of 40 See GAIN Translating the Phainomena across genre, language and culture arms to recede into distant silence?

Turning to the fragments, in the second, Germanicus explains the path of the Sun through the zodiac and discusses the planetary motions. Fragments iii and iv contain details of the effects of each planet and sign on the weather. So, for example, Germanicus offers these accounts of weather signs and phenomena fragment iii lines 1—9: The Ram scatters dreary rain mixed with hail and falling snow over the nearby ridges.

The Bull carries water and arouses violent winds. Under him Jupiter often casts his thunderbolts, the sky is violent, fires are sent from it, and it thunders. Under the Twins winds gently caress the azure sky and moisture seldom travels down from sky to earth. Everything grows mild under the peaceful sign of the Crab.

The Lion is dry, seeing that his breast is particularly hot. This is immediately followed at lines 13—15 by a reference to weather forecasting, as it affects the farmer and the sailor, again echoing Aratus, as well as Hesiod. She points to DRN 5. Toohey, a scholar who accepts Germanicus as the author, has argued that, as the heir to the Augustan succession and the Augustan peace, Germanicus, a military and political leader as well as a poet, had a quite different agenda from that of Aratus.

But Avienus has less to say in the section on meteorological prognostication, writing only 1.

Table View of Natural Persons

He does list weather signs, but also engages with questions relating to causation. So, for example, in lines —, he discusses the origin of clouds, winds and rain; in lines — the cause of solar eclipses. More can be said about the versions produced by Germanicus and Avienus; strikingly, in both cases the material on weather-signs has been altered. In the case of Germanicus, this seems to have been motivated by a theoretical commitment to the rejection of the role of the gods in influencing weather, and to an interest in positing completely natural causes; the influence of Lucretius has been suggested here.

Possanza has gone so far as to suggest that Germanicus has really produced a new work, rather than simply a translation. Furthermore, the Latin translations had resonances with other Latin didactic poems, including that of Lucretius. In creating their translations these writers did not choose between producing either a scientific or a non-scientific text. Rather, the broader culture in which each of these authors worked permitted — indeed, encouraged — the production of texts incorporating many elements, including for example the religious, as well as the political; the inter-relationships between these elements should not be regarded as static or, necessarily, obvious to us.

Ancient Debates about the Nature of Evidence. Fragmenta Poetarum Latinorum epicorum et lyricorum praeter Ennium et Lucilium. The Fragmentary Latin Poets. Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth eds. The Criticism of Didactic Poetry: Essays on Lucretius, Virgil, and Ovid. University of Toronto Press. Arats Phainomena und die Tradition der antiken Lehrepik. The Aratus Ascribed to Germanicus Caesar. Ovid, Aratus and Augustus: Vergil, Aratus, and Others: The Weather Sign as a Literary Subject. The Classical Papers of A. Poetry and Philosophy in the Phaenomena of Aratus. Astronomy, Weather, and Calendars in the Ancient World: Commentariorum in Aratum Reliquiae.

Hipparchi in Arati et Eudoxi phaenomena commentariorum libri tres. Geographi Graeci Minores, 2 vols. Greek Mathematics and the Alexandrian Aesthetic. Aratus, Germanicus, and the Poetics of Latin Translation. The Skies and Weather-Forecasts of Aratus. Lucretius and the Transformation of Greek Wisdom, Cambridge: Tagung der Karlund Gertrud-Abel-Stiftung vom Juli in Trier Philosophie der Antike, Aetna and the Moon: Explaining Nature in Ancient Greece and Rome. Oregon State University Press.

An Introduction to Ancient Didactic Poetry. Dictionary of Scientific Biography. The Poetics of Latin Didactic: Lucretius, Vergil, Ovid, Manilius. It is a treatise on Religious Astronomy1, combining the description of astronomical observations and their religio-mythological interpretation. The modern title, Book of Nut, originated from the depiction of the sky goddess Nut arching over the earth and being supported by the god of the air, Shu, which is found in some copies. This title is appropriate for a text about the course of the sun, the cycle of the decanal stars, and the phases of the moon and the planets.

The book is known in nine different copies of various dates. Three copies are monumental, and the others are papyri of the 2nd century AD from the temple library of Tebtynis, modern Umm el-Breigat, a town in the southern Fayum. Roughly contemporary with Mutirdis is another source of the text, which is an adapted excerpt from it in a Mythological Manual from an unidentified temple library.

The astronomical data included in the decan list below the body of Nut point to the 12th dynasty ca. The arguments presented in my contribution of the symposium proceedings in short can be found in more detail with further references. VON Alexandra von Lieven However, there are two different decan lists that cannot be reconciled with each other.

Consequently, one of them has to be a secondary addition. I think this must be the data list from the Middle Kingdom, which provides a random point in time, and not a particularly interesting date. For historic-linguistic reasons, it is likely that the text with the list of stars originates from the Old Kingdom. The list of astronomical data might be a Middle Kingdom addition. There are a few further additions to the text, which are conspicuous based on linguistic and similar features. For example, some sentences e. Regardless of how old the text really is, it seems safe to assume that it had a textual history before its first positive attestation in the Osireion, and obviously, it still enjoyed some popularity among the Tebtynis priests of the Roman period.

The latter valued it enough to keep three exclusively hieratic versions without illustration, one illustrated hieroglyphic version, and two versions, which contain the hieratic text with a Demotic translation and commentary as well as an elaborate description of the absent illustration, in their library. I will refer to them by their Carlsberg numbers, even if most of them have matching fragments in up to three different collections5. Joining fragments to most of these papyri are kept today by the Istituto Papirologico G. I would like to thank all these collections very much for the permission to study and publish these papyri.

Translating the Fundamentals of the Course of the Stars containing a Demotic translation are pCarlsberg 1 and pCarlsberg 1a. They were written by the same scribe and have the same layout: While at the end there is just one, at the beginning there are two such lines. The lemma to be translated is written in hieratic script starting at the first of these, while the translation and commentary follow in demotic script.

They start after a little or almost no empty space after the lemma and run over into the next lines, depending on how long the text is. The translation is the basis for the commentary. Occasionally, the commentary also refers to untranslated features of the original, like peculiar hieroglyphic writings or details of the illustration. The lack of the continuation on the phases of the moon led earlier scholars to believe that this part did not belong to the Fundamentals of the Course of the Stars, although some of it is already present in the Osireion.

However, the final words of the commentator indicate without doubt that this part was present in the master copy the scribe was commenting on. The first sentence of the lunar chapter is explicitly cited, followed by the statement of the commentator: This is the beginning of other things. Earlier scholars interpreted this as a statement that he did not find more text. Therefore, most likely, what he really meant, is: This interpretation is linguistically possible and one could relate to it, because the lunar and planetary chapters are extremely hard to understand.

Due to bad preservation it is difficult to ascertain how much text there was originally in pCarlsberg 1a, but as there is not a single fragment from the lunar or planetary chapters, they were probably missing in this version as well. However, it seems clear that pCarlsberg 1a must originally have held more text in the chapters that were included in it, and there are considerable variants between its text and Alexandra von Lieven that of its brother papyrus, both in the basic part and in the translation-cum-commentary.

How did the translators proceed? They translated the text sentence by sentence. In the case of longer text blocks, they even split them into two or three parts, so that they only had to deal with short snippets at a time. The translation is not only quite literal in most cases, but it also often adhered to the same words, provided they were still in use in the language. In other cases, however, older words or constructions were exchanged in favour of younger ones.

Sometimes it is not entirely clear why a particular word was changed or kept. Interestingly, but not unexpectedly, in case of the original words being retained, they were mostly also left in the hieratic script even within the otherwise demotic text. The effect is comparable to a book printed in gothic print with interspersed roman type for words in Latin. The sense of the text is then further elaborated on in the commentary.

This commentary is mostly a philological commentary avant la lettre, rather than a commentary on the facts treated in the text itself. Some facts are explained as well, but mostly it seems that the commentary is simply restating the statement of the translation in some variation. To illustrate these points, I will give several examples from the text. The text, labelling a little sun disk on the ground, reads in the Osireion: In pCarlsberg 1 the lemma reads: Immediately following this, the commentary explains: Look onto the picture.

The latter is noteworthy, as one would rather have expected the feminine article. Based on the context, there can be no doubt that the redness of dawn was imagined in this text as being the result of the blood flowing from the womb of the sky goddess after the birth of her son, the sun god Re. Furthermore, the scribe expected his readers to consult the original hieroglyphic illustrated version, thereby degrading the translation and its commentary to an ancillary function. The passage is taken from the chapter on the decanal stars.

According to the concept of the text, the decanal stars are also the children of the goddess Nut. He spoke about this because? As can be seen, the commentary states the same twice with only slight variants, the second time supplying a little more information. Unfortunately, the reading at the end of the last sentence is unclear. While this passage consists of only one long lemma in pCarlsberg 1, the lemma is split into three little sentence fragments, which are then translated, in pCarlsberg 1a.

However, the last part does not give a translation, but instead the interpretation one would expect from the commentary. Unfortunately it is not clear whether there was Alexandra von Lieven more commentary on all three lemmata as the papyrus is broken vertically behind the section of the translations. As is evident, pCarlsberg 1a adds a short part on the renewed life of the stars absent completely from pCarlsberg 1, but present in the Osireion version a millennium earlier.

It should also be mentioned that this part of the decan chapter is completely garbled in both of the two papyri in comparison with the Osireion version. It seems that the Egyptian scholars who wrote the commentaries struggled considerably with the sense in some places. The paragraph just cited also shows quite well the lexical and grammatical changes from the older to the younger phase of the language in the translation, e.

Both words existed in the earlier as well as in the later phases of the language. The grammatical change seems unmotivated and unnecessary. Because the old statement of existence did not survive in Demotic, another functionally equivalent construction was needed. Maybe it would even be better to translate: This example also shows that the same construction in the original text is not always translated by the same grammatical construction in Demotic. All the others, including pCarlsberg 1a, are more or less fragmentary and are only recto texts with the verso left blank. Hence it may be concluded that the Fundamentals of the Course of the Stars were esteemed highly by the Egyptian scribes.

Its translation and commentary made it immediately famous among all those interested in Egyptian science. Of course, the question has to be, when was this translation and commentary written? Traditionally, it was thought that the actual scribe of pCarlsberg 1 in the 2nd century AD was the author of the commentary. However, this is hardly possible. Firstly, the language is not Late, but rather Middle Demotic, as it would have been at the turn from the Dynastic to the Ptolemaic period.

Secondly, there are also copying errors like omissions of text and the like in the commentary, which prove that it was copied from an older model, along with the basic text. And finally, there is the second manuscript with commentary, pCarlsberg 1a. The odd number 1a is due to the fact that this manuscript was written by the same scribe who wrote pCarlsberg 1. One could of course assume that he was a professional scribe who copied the text for two clients.

Unfortunately, as stated earlier, the two copies exhibit a considerable number of significant differences and sometimes rather extensive textual variants, which cannot be explained as scribal errors. These can be found both in the basic text and in the commentary. But why would the same scribe have copied two differing versions? In order to explain these variations, it is necessary to turn our attention to the purely hieratic manuscripts. As stated earlier, all of these papyri originate from Tebtynis and date to approximately the same period around AD.

Although I do not know the name of this Alexandra von Lieven scribe, I know two other manuscripts he wrote. One is a copy of the Mythological Manual listing local myths for all of the Egyptian nomes6, the other was a copy of the Book of the Temple, a manual on how to build and run an ideal temple7. All three texts were present in multiple copies at Tebtynis and thus seem to have enjoyed a high status among works of priestly knowledge.

The next manuscript, pCarlsberg , included a lunar chapter following the standard solar and decanal star chapters, but it is not parallel to the other versions. Whether something is missing, whether the sequence of text is garbled or whether it is a completely different text, I am unable to say, as this part is very fragmentary. Finally, there is pCarlsberg , of which unfortunately only few scraps remain. Nevertheless, they are extremely interesting. This papyrus also contained at least the lunar chapter. In the Osireion version of the lunar chapter, there are some gaps marked which indicate loss of text in the master copy of that version.

These same gaps are filled with quite a bit of text in the version of pCarlsberg In pCarlsberg , in contrast, the same gaps are just gaps, like in the Osireion version, although perhaps not marked as such. What sense could it possibly make to copy a lacunose version, if one has another one available without lacunae? Maybe the point of this copy was not the lunar chapter at all. In fact, all of the other four papyri mentioned so far had the garbled version of the beginning of the decan chapter, while the Osireion version is the only one with a correct version of this part.

My conjecture is, that pCarlsberg , like the Osireion, also showed the correct order in that chapter. Unfortunately, nothing of this section is preserved, so this cannot be verified. It is unclear whether there was more of the text or whether it consisted only of the illustrated first chapter, like in the Ramses IV and Mutirdis versions. To be published by Joachim Friedrich Quack. Translating the Fundamentals of the Course of the Stars other papyri.

It is interesting that pCarlsberg 1a mentions in reference to the list of data below the body of Nut that its heading was written in red ink. And indeed in this papyrus, precisely this part is written in red ink! By now it is evident, that the six papyri from the temple library of Tebtynis are not merely identical copies of the same text, but that each has unique features distinguishing it from the others. As there does not seem to be a huge time difference between the copies, it is highly unlikely that six different contemporary priests should have possessed six strongly individualistic copies of the same text, of which two were even written by the same scribe.

What can one make of this puzzling discovery? Hints at a possible explanation are provided by the manuscripts themselves. In four of the six, especially in the almost completely preserved pCarlsberg 1, there are again and again notes about variant readings within the text8. Variant readings of course do not fall out of the sky, nor do I believe they were ad hoc invented. Thus the only possibility is that they were gleaned from comparing different manuscripts of the same text. In fact, such variant readings are not a peculiarity of the Fundamentals of the Course of the Stars, but are well known from other Egyptian texts as well, even from much older periods9.

What is new and exciting about the Fundamentals of the Course of the Stars manuscripts is, that one can more or less catch the priests in the act of comparing versions. Also, the collected versions differ in much more than single readings of words. Could it be that they were trying to establish something like a critical edition? After all, this is the period when Alexandrian scholars were laying the foundations of textual criticism for Greek literature.

However, one should perhaps not be over-enthusiastic, as the Egyptians hardly ever seem to have discarded a reading — unless of course they did this without noting it down. In fact, I know of only one case of explicit disapproval of a reading by crossing it out Still, those different versions must have arisen from several independent traditions and were probably gathered by copying borrowed manuscripts from other temple libraries elsewhere.

It is now interesting to compare the use of the Fundamentals of the Course of the Stars to the use of other texts by the Tebtynis priests. While in the former category texts of old were preserved by faithful copying and comparisons to other versions, as the Fundamentals of the Course of the Stars amply demonstrates, this was not the case with narratives and wisdom literature.

Taking the enormous number of such texts preserved from Tebtynis into account, it is difficult to argue with the whims of preservation. It seems much more plausible that in fact the Tebtynis priests did never read any of the classics of Middle Egyptian literature. This is all the more remarkable, as they did copy the Siut inscriptions — texts from private tombs of the Middle Kingdom of no general applicability While the interpretation of the Siut phenomenon would require an article of its own, the disinterest in Middle Egyptian classical literature is understandable if one compares these older narratives and wisdom teachings with the Demotic texts from the late libraries.

The differences both in content and style are striking. It is also noteworthy that parallel versions of the Demotic narratives show sometimes great variants in detail The tradition seems to be rather open, which might point to a semi-orality. Translating the Fundamentals of the Course of the Stars no variant readings were noted down. As for literary texts, there are no translations from Middle Egyptian into Demotic, although they were frequently grammatically or linguistically updated within the framework of Demotic language.

In the field of priestly knowledge on the other hand, the Fundamentals of the Course of the Stars is not the only text which did receive the elaborate attention of translation and commentary in a younger phase of the Egyptian language. At any rate, the Tebtynis priests read both genres and kept them in their temple library,17 thereby furnishing us with a veritable treasuretrove of texts.

One of these was the Fundamentals of the Course of the Stars, which must have been one of the most important works on Egyptian astronomy, if the number of preserved copies over the millennia is anything to go by. Sandra Lippert and Maren Schentuleit eds. Note, however, that of these, only the as yet unpublished bilingual version of the Book of the Fayum is really fully comparable to the bilingual versions of the Fundamentals of the Course of the Stars.

The Carlsberg Papyri 8.

• Vinde, amor ardente (Portuguese Edition)
• A Shortcut Through Time: The Path to A Quantum Computer
• Lavender Dreams
• A Christmas Sermon (Annotated Edition)
• Burly & Grum and The Birthday Surprise (The Burly & Grum Tales Book 3)
• THE BIG ESOTERIC ILLUSION
• Desert Love (Soldiers in Heat Book 2)