L’Hôtel des liens: un fantasme BDSM (French Edition)

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There is, however, something peculiar about the commentar- ies of Montesquieu and Rousseau that escapes Landes's otherwise remarkable analysis: Montesquieu wrote the book at least in part to titil- late. Even the most vitri- olic passages in his Letter toM. Mary Sheriff's essay goes right to the heart of these questions by juxtaposing Rousseau's commentary on the evils of wet-nurs- ing to Fragonard's painting on the same subject Visit to the Wet Nurse, c. Rousseau insisted that "natural" women breast- feed their own children as part of his program for a new domestic- ity, which was linked to the establishment of.

Fragonard's painting would seem to represent sim- ilar concerns, but at every tum it subverts a simple reading. The mother in the painting is erotic-as opposed to good or bad-and she dominates both the composition of the painting and her hus- band, whose head rests on her breasts, and who himself appears relatively effeminate.

The composition of the painting seems to be divided between religious veneration and erotic display, and the husband has strangely displaced the child in the arms of the natural mother. Fragonard's painting thus epitomizes many of the critical issues of the day about women's proper role and demeanor, but it does so in a profoundly ambiguous way, which calls into question men's role as well.

The erotic mother's body is central to this ambiguity, which is both sociopolitical and representational. Anne Deneys focuses on the system of exchange that organizes the relationships of characters in Les Liaisons dangereuses. The exchanges include promises, stories, and pacts, and each of these in turn presupposes the exchange of women between men. She uncovers three levels of exchange in the libertine novel: Women function as mer- chandise in the libertine economy, merchandise that is always in movement and whose circulation serves to enhance the reputa- tion capital of men.

On the ethical level, the libertine characters take as their raison d'etre the development of a method for hold- ing off the dangers of the flesh. They can only triumph by separ- ating themselves from their own affections and passions. Finally, the libertine exchange of language is based on the belief that signifiers and their referents can be sep- arated from each other; the marquise de Merteuil and Valmont believe that they can use lies and hypocrisy to get what they want.

But the novel proves them wrong when Valmont falls in love with the Presidente de Tourvel. Here again the novel is not subversive but rather paradoxically supportive of the functioning of the law. Thus libertinage in the novel is not so much concerned with transgression as it is with reinforcing "the supreme law of exchange. Because women are counters of exchange between men, their bodies have an almost entirely abstract value.

The bodies of women are thus, in a sense, absent in the story; they are almost never described in any telling detail. A particularly striking instance of the absent female body was that of Marie Antoinette in the Diamond Necklace scandal of , which is analyzed by Sarah Maza.

The queen of France was not, of course, just any woman, and her reputation was a mat- ter of state. This was an affair that was all about reputation, for as Sarah Maza shows, the queen actually played no role in this scandal that ruined her name. Structural historical reasons explain how the queen's absent body could count for so much in the power relations of late Old Regime France.

Pamphleteers of the s and os had repeatedly and violently denounced the feminization and eroticization of power under Louis XV, who was portrayed as unduly influenced by his notorious mistresses Madame de Pompadour and Madame Du Barry. When Louis XVI came to power, Marie Antoinette became the target of choice for those who associated the overlapping of female sexual and polit- ical activity with the political decay of the nation.

The pamphlets about the scandal not only insinuated that Marie Antoinette might have participated, given her reputation for sexual debauchery, but also in the process developed an indict- ment of the effects of female sexuality on political life. The pamphlets and legal briefs generated by the trial of the principals in the scandal not only ruined the queen's reputation; they helped establish a new public avid for details about upper-class female intrigue. This public would come to see femininity as incompatible with a virtuous public sphere.

The women's march to Versailles in October captured the imagination of revolutionaries and counterrevolu- tionaries alike. In Edmund Burke described how "the royal captives The engraver of the Grand Debande- ment de l'armee anticonstitutionelle might seem to take Burke with a certain mock seriousness, for he shows in parodic form how the drapery of life can indeed be "rudely torn off.

In her analysis of this engraving, Viv- ian Cameron traces a variety of formal and thematic influences ranging from the carnivalesque and scatological to the erotic and misogynist. The engraving is an especially valuable source be- cause it brings into clear visual focus many of the themes about eroticism and the body politic that had been unfolding in the eighteenth-century literature.

The essay that I have contributed to this volume takes the liter- ature against Marie Antoinette into the revolutionary period itself. The trial of the former queen highlighted the accusations of sexual debauchery and linked them to a representation of her as a bad mother. The charge that she had committed incest with her eight-year-old son was made more plausible by the increasingly pornographic p!: The charges in these underground pamphlets had a wide public resonance thanks to popular newspapers such as Hebert's Pere Duchesne, which re- ferred to the queen as "an old whore, who has neither faith nor respect for the law.

If "a woman who becomes queen changes sex," as Louise de Keralio claimed, then what were the revolutionaries to make of women who demanded rights to political participation? A leading Jacobin deputy claimed that such women were "emancipated girls, amazons," and not long after the queen was executed, the National Convention closed all women's political clubs.

Thus Marie Antoinette's body stood for women's entrance into the public arena; she was a kind of negative third point in the triangular rela- tionship of male bonding that lay at the heart of republicanism. The relationship between the erotic body and the social body is dramatically developed by Lucienne Frappier-Mazur in her essay on the marquis de Sade's Story of fuliette.

Although often very violent, the Sadian orgy scene had a "rigorous ritualism'' and a "ritual symbolism'' that were closely related to sociopolitical reality. Women are the central, though multivalent, figures in this dramatic contest between disorder and order. The work of the anthropologist Mary Douglas on the body as a social meta- phor is used here to show how Sade, by his very extremity of expression, reveals the social function and arbitrary character of the inferiority ascribed to women in his time. Women are the models for a hierarchical system that is marked by internal contradictions because they are defined both by sex and by social class.

The feminine is associated with defilement and disgust, a disgust that turns into desire only if women are violently subju- gated, thus averting the threat they represent. In the novel the erotic has become frankly pornographic and very far removed in tone, though perhaps not in substance, from a work such as Montes- quieu's Persian Letters , but the pornographic turn itself fosters a more profound putting into question of the social order. In all three periods under discussion here, women's bodies were at the center of male debate about social tensions.

Society itself came to have a greater place in the controversies of the nine- teenth century. Where in the earlier periods the eroticized aristo- cratic woman or prostitute or queen represented a specifically political corruption and decay, by the end of the nineteenth cen- tury writers were much more concerned with prostitution and eroticism as examples of the commercialization of all human relations? In the novels of Emile Zola, for example, the female body is explicitly related to the machinery of commerce and in- dustrialism.

Zola's female characters, and the figures analyzed in our three final chapters, on the fin de siecle, came out of a complex nineteenth-century lineage reaching back to the novels of Balzac and the pioneering study of Parisian prostitution by A.

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Parent- Duchatelet, De la prostitution dans la ville de Paris We have seen how the political theme of the woman in public easily shaded over into a concern with prostitution. The prostitute was the public woman, and any woman pretending to act in public whether the queen or a more ordinary democrat such as The- roigne de Mericourt risked being identified as a prostitute. In the nineteenth century the prostitute came to occupy a special role in narrative forms because she exemplified the capacity to cross social barriers by masking her true class background.

Sue's popularity was made possible by the conjunction of serial production, growing public interest in the social causes of prostitution, and a concern with the proliferation of the lower, and presumably criminal, classes. Introduction II The three essays on the fin de siecle take up similar themes, but they show how much the woman question had changed over the decades. Debora Silverman's essay on Art Nouveau depicts a con- test between two very different visions of the female in France in the os and os: The threat of the femme nou- velle was explicitly linked to the new age of machines.

In response, men and women in the circles of Art Nouveau argued for a special feminine mission in the decorative arts. Women were cast and cast themselves as regenerators of the decorative arts through their own artistic creations and through their ability to fashion a more artistically conscious home interior-in short, as both producers and consumers of the decorative arts.

Prominent female advocates of "familial feminism'! This case study of Art Nouveau demonstrates that by the end of the nineteenth century the "new woman'' could not be dismissed as easily as she had been in the s; she could only be kept at bay if a different and more compelling image of woman could be devised. This new image is best represented by La Pari- sienne, the queen of the decorative arts who graced the entryway to the Paris World Exhibition of The threat of the participat- ing female of had been transformed into a symbol of ele- gance, femininity, and French national pride.

The answer to the masculinized femme nouvelle of the industrial age was a newly eroticized and feminized, yet also artful, woman of interior spaces. Emily Apter focuses on one of the major sources of a new con- ceptionalization of the erotic at the end of the nineteenth century: She uses several texts by Maupassant to reread the psychoanalytic lit- erature on fetishism and to develop a new notion of female fetish- ism.

Maupassant's fiction represents rituals of maternal bereave.. Maupassant modeled his descriptions of manic collecting and mourning on Charcot's exhi.. His stories also provide a kind of "thick description'' of women's behavior at its most extreme when faced with overwhelming loss. These descriptions, when juxtaposed with recent feminist revisions of psychoanalysis, permit a kind of reversal of traditional psychoan- alytic views of female eroticism and thereby contribute to a gen- eral destabilization of the categories of sex and the erotic.

Reputation appears again in a very different form in Anne Wagner's essay on Rodin. Here the character is the artist himself, whose own sexuality was expressed in the sexual intensity of his art, and whose reputation depended on the commingling of the two. Rodin worked within the fin-de-siecle discourse on male and female sexuality, and the popularity of his sculpture was no doubt facilitated by the fin-de-siecle preoccupation with sexual- ity. His aims were not ignored by contemporary critics, who immediately saw his art as "sexual truth-telling.

In many ways, Rodin's work entered into complicity with the prevailing sexual ideology that saturated a publication such as Gil Blas, in which man was "endlessly chasing after, peering at, pursuing, possessing and being possessed by one object, woman. With Rodin, then, we have come full circle from Rousseau, who railed against women's seductiveness eroticism as a form of artificial social manipula- tion. For Rodin, the truth behind this social veneer of eroticism was the body "as it really is," a site of sexual difference and desire.

His rendition of this carnal reality was and remains susceptible to contradictory readings, perhaps because eroticism itself re- mains ambiguous: Yet at the same time women's bodies continued to be represented- and domesticated- by men in art and literature.

They were still more often the object of the artist's or writer's gaze than they were the subject of their own representing pro- cesses. Women continued to function as a link between men, the point of triangulation or exchange that enabled men to relate to one another in social and political organizations. If these essays have shown that some things remained the same, while others changed, they have also shown that the erotic potential of women's bodies was far from a marginal concern in the elabora- tion of modern forms of politics, art, literature, and psychology.

Jeffrey Horn of the Department of History offered invalu- able assistance in organizing the conference. The authors are grateful for the comments and suggestions offered at the original conference by Naomi Schor, Bonnie Smith, and Carroll Smith-Rosenberg. Walter Kendrick, The Secret Museum: Pornography in Modern Cul- ture New York: Viking Press, , p. Cornell University Press, Anchor Books, , pp. Yale University Press, , esp. Outram develops many interesting lines of argument about the exclu- sion of women, but she does not pay much attention to the issue of eroti- cism.

Most troubling to my mind is the way she tries to link the revolutionary attitude toward the body and fascism in the twentieth cen- tury. Our analysis places more emphasis on the inherent ambivalence and lack of fixity of eroticism in its relationship to politics. I am indebted to Sarah Maza for suggesting this line of argument. See Peter Brooks, Reading for the Plot: Design and Intention in the Narrative New York: Random House, , pp.

What follows in this and the next paragraph is largely based on Brooks. What seems to be stated by the subject matter depicted can be subverted by the formal structure of the work or colored by a second subject configured within and playing against the first. In these and other cases the image stubbornly resists any straightforward reading, even one based on a sensitive apprais- al of the gender or class biases of the painting's audience s. For both ambiguous and ironic works it is crucial that the inter- nal dynamics of the painting direct the reading and that the multiple interactions between ostensible subject, subtext s , and formal structure govern how the interpreter conceives the rela- tions between the painted image and either the social practice it represents or the social ideal it helps to create.

Attention to these caveats is particularly important when con- sidering those subtle and complex paintings produced in France during what we now call the rococo period. Despite the sophisti- cated sociopolitical readings of works produced at the beginning and end of the eighteenth century for example, Thomas Crow on Watteau and DavidJ,t works made in the middle years-paintings by Chardin, Boucher, and Fragonard-have been too frequently explained with readings that are as uncomplicated as they claim the works to be.

Int-erpreters insist on simplistic associations in which paintings are taken to mirror social ideals loosely defined; Chardin's The Diligent Mother ; Paris: Heureuse Fecondite The Happy Family , c. The Luncheon ; Paris: This interpretation was mostly recently restated in the catalogue of a Fragonard retrospective, where the following analysis of I: National Gallery of Art fig.

Clearly, Rousseau's moralizing lesson was immediately understood. We might be tempted to say that I.: Heureuse Fecondite courts a generalized Rousseauian reading because it so obviously depicts a family group absorbed by its domestic pleasures. Other of Fragonard's family scenes, however, are more closed to facile readings, for.

A pertinent example, and one that will occupy us for the rest of this chapter, is Visit to the Wet Nurse c. But let's back up for a moment. Does Fragonard's Visit indeed depict what its name implies? In the case of Fragonard's Visit our analysis is complicated because the adroit joining of incongruous elements into a seamless fiction suggests an imagined situation far distanced from any historical circumstance. Museum of Fine Arts fig. These works present an idyllic view of the country with suitably contented peasants enjoying their leisure, love, or family plea- sures.

Living in harmony with nature, happy and carefree, these idealized peasants enact rural life as a golden age imagined by the privileged. Although Fragonard's pastoral scenes do not depict actual social conditions or practices, they represent the fantasies and nostalgias of elite culture, and sometimes evoke real circum- stances through implied contrast.

There is a major difference, however, between the Visit and other pastoral family scenes by Fragonard.

In every other canvas depicting rural family life the figures are of a consistent type, even though they are varied by age, sex, and activity? Their iden- tification as "peasants" turns on body form and attitude as well as costume. The country mothers in The Good Mother, I.: Heureuse Fecondite, or The Happy Mother c.

Metropoli- tan Museum of Art are robust, with fully rounded torsos, rela- tively muscular arms, and sturdy necks. More monumental than the slender and elegant elite women in works like the Progress of Love ; New York: The fabri- cated dress of these pastoral figures evokes or references garb asso- ciated with country folk. Women wear aprons or pinafores or jer- kins, often they are barefooted and sometimes bonneted; their sleeves are always full and billowing. These pastoral types having been described, it becomes appar- ent that the young couple in Fragonard's Visit to the Wet Nurse are discordant notes in the rustic harmony.

The young woman has slender arms and torso, dainty hands and features, a long, ele- gant neck, and a slightly mannered tum to her body. Her dress, although rather simply cut, does not reference the countrified costume so well established by Fragonard in other works. Rather, it evokes the low-cut gowns worn with neckerchiefs that were popular among urban women in the later eighteenth century. Thus we have an intrusion into the fictive rural world defined by the rest of the painting, an intrusion of types who come from a genre other than the pastoral.

Intrusive elements are not, however, unknown in Fragonard's pastoral works; in fact, many of his experiments in this genre include incongruous details that locate the scene in fantasy. For example, in I.: Heureuse Fecondite diamond-paned windows lifted from representations of the vernacular architecture of northern Europe are set into a ruined classical building; and in The Happy Mother a bound sacrificial lamb and kneeling shepherd are placed prominently in the foreground at the feet of a young mother holding two squirming children.

These breaches in vrai- semblance also signal the presence of a subtext lying below and perhaps related to the ostensible subject matter. Heureuse Fecondite that subtext is about art: In no other pastoral fam- ily scene painted by Fragonard do we find a mixing of character types, and this mixing points to the theme intuitively recognized as the subject of the Washington painting-the visit to the wet nurse. But instead of subverting the illusion of reality by introduc- ing into it an improbable element, the intrusion of urban types in Visit to the Wet Nurse suggests that the scene may represent an actual social practice, albeit in a highly imaginative way.

The pas- toral tradition is thus inverted, made to suggest a real life situa- tion rather than present an obvious fantasy. Given the preoccupation with nursing and child-rearing in the eighteenth century, and considering the many works of art devoted to these themes, it is difficult to suppose that Fragonard's image can easily be-separated from that context. This resistance to a direct reading is evident when we consider from a number of possible perspec- tives what we see depicted in Fragonard's painting. Let me first rehearse briefly some of the issues surrounding wet-nursing in eighteenth-century France and then attempt to read Fragonard's image through this information.

By the eighteenth century the practice of wet-nursing was well established despite the high mortality rate of infants sent out to nurse and despite the writings of scientists, doctors, and moral- ists, who had since the sixteenth century presented maternal nursing as a duty to God and country. These men-and the vast majority of writers on the subject were men-argued that women were morally obliged to safeguard the offspring God gave them, as well as patriotically bound to increase the population, and thereby the wealth, of France.

This situation put the woman in a double bind.

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A mother nursing her child would safeguard the baby's physical health, but risk the moral well-being of her husband, who might be tempted to adultery or, even worse, onanism. If she fulfilled her conjugal duty, she did so by putting the nursling's safety in jeopardy. But perhaps it is even inaccurate to cast the dilemma as the woman's choice; there were clear guidelines provided by the father confes- sors as to the proper decision to make in each circumstance, and unless the child's health was in imminent danger, the father's vir- tue was often the primary consideration.

Moreover, the husband could always insist on his conjugal due, in which case the woman had no alternative but to find a nurse. More affluent women sent children to nurse because of tradition, convenience, or social duties, or because midwives and relatives convinced them that proper nursing was exception- ally difficult. These women became the special target of moral- ists, who chastised them for neglecting their natural and patri- otic duties, choosing instead to preserve their beauty, satisfy their selfish vanity, and enjoy unfettered the pleasures of society.

The ideal of the good mother found its most persuasive spokesman in Jean-Jacques Rousseau, who envisioned a "natural" woman edu- cated to please her husband, bear his children, and care for the fam- ily, a woman successfully removed from the social sphere and returned to the domestic duties for which nature intended her, a woman sensitive and loving, a woman dependent on and obedient to male authority.

While keeping women subservient to patriarchal authority, it permitted them a closer and more emotionally fulfilling relationship with their chil- dren. But good mothering, like so many other privileges, came with increased social status, and in urban areas it was among aris- tocrats and the well-to-do, who could afford to breast-feed, that the practice first became popular and fashionable.

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I 8 Now let's look at Fragonard's painting. We see an urban couple from the more privileged classes who have come to visit their nursling, put out in the country. According to some contempo- rary thinking the more affluent mother, free from the demands of daily labor, had no good reason to put her child to nurse; only the unnatural and unloving mother would risk the health of her infant and avoid the opportunity of a tender relationship with her baby.

Commenting on such mothers in book I of Emile, Rousseau asked his audience: These sweet mothers, having rid themselves of their children, indulge gaily in the amusements of the town. Do they know the treatment that their swaddled babes endure in the country? At the least provocation the child is hung up on a nail like a bundle of clothes and while the nurse goes about her business leisurely, the child is left crucified.

I do not know how long a child might survive in these circumstances, but I doubt it could be very long. That I think, is one of the great advantages of swaddling. I think not; the child sleeps peace- fully in the cradle, it is not constrained in swaddling, and there is no sign of impending doom about the infant.

The other children -and it is not clear if they are children of the couple, of the nurse, or of other clients-look healthy and well tended.

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Certainly there was even in the eighteenth century sufficient evidence to indicate that children so treated had a greater chance of survival than those left unsuper- vised far from home. We might also conjecture from the conflu- ence of healthy children and country setting that the work also capitalizes on a widely held belief that the country was superior to the city for cultivating the physical and moral development of the child.

Yet understanding Visit to the Wet Nurse as a depiction of lov- ing parents is as problematic as seeing in it a simple representa- tion of the unnatural mother. Notice that in the painting there is special emphasis on the mother's breasts. They are prominent and lighted, revealed and framed by the cut of her bodice. Most significant, the husband is nestled against them. The infant here is displaced by the father, not a surprising suggestion given that the woman had to choose although the choice may not have been a free one between her duties as mother and her duties as wife.

Writers described the nursling as if it were the mother's lover, assuming for it the man's role in the rela- tionship. Ambroise Pare, for example, wrote of nursing's plea- sures in the second book of his anatomy text. There he called it a "delicious" stimulation, and noted that the nipples were sensi- tive because they had many nerve endings, and because they had an affinity with the genitals. The infant "gently titillates them with his tongue and mouth. In Fragonard's image, however, the lover does not cede his position, and he acts as both lover and child in relation to the mother, embraced by her, holding her hands, and nestling against her breast.

Not only is he placed at the mother's breast, but he kneels on a prie-dieu which acquires a symbolic resonance because mis- placed in the country setting.

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But what are we to make of these references in the context of Fragonard's Visit to the Wet Nurse? Norton Simon Collection presents his standard guise. He is positioned lower than his lady, he nuzzles against her breast, and he appears to be enraptured in his infatuation. In the traditions of the pastoral this pose created the fiction of male subservience, suggesting that the lady had the power to grant or deny her lover's favors.

In Fragonard's Visit the father enacts a double fiction of subservience as he bends before both wife and child. The father's posture, moreover, points to the unsettling combi- nation of religious iconography and pastoral tradition that charac- terizes this representation of contemporary social practices. The references to sacred history go beyond the father's adoring pose. Underlying all Fragonard's depictions of mothers or fathers or siblings peeping into the cradle of a sleeping infant is his copy of a Holy Family by Rembrandt, where the Virgin adjusts the drap- ery over the cradle as she tenderly watches her son.

This suggests that the nurse is replacing the mother as the father is displacing the child. Our interpretation of Fragonard's. First, we could take this painting as a direct record of social reality; the old woman actually could be the nurse, for there were records of women who practiced the profes- sion until they were seventy by providing children with animal milk. Thus we come back to the observation that the child hardly looks as if it is on the brink of disaster. More significant, most things about this painting suggest that it is not to be read as a simple transcription of reality.

The incongruous nurse holding her useless distaff seems emotionally distanced from the event, more a symbolic figure than a character in a sen- timental narrative tableau. With no reliable contemporary comment on Fragonard's Visit to the Wet Nurse, we might turn to the artist or audience to extri- cate us from these contradictions and to help us discern the rela- tion between image and contemporary social practices, attitudes, and ideals.

Although turning to the artist is often a dangerous move, it has been made for Fragonard: The argument is even less plausible because we actually know nothing of Fragonard's attitude toward his own family life. Sounder reasoning suggests that the painter chose his subjects according to consumer demand.

We are sometimes on safer ground in exploring how the meaning s of a painting were determined by consumers or buy- ers, and we can draw general inferences from the social class, reli- gious affiliation, and so on of the intended audience. Fragonard did not paint Visit to the Wet Nurse as a salon piece for public view; we can assume a buyer from the monied classes and a small private audience of men and women. That Visit was intended for the sophisticated viewer is suggested by the paint handling, for this is one of the most complicated and unusual of all Fragonard's surfaces.

The tonality has been lim- ited to subtle variations and mixtures of yellow and red, set off with blue-green in the shadows. The brushwork has a similar property. Seen from afar the sur- face seems rather uniformly finished, but move close to the work and areas that appear broadly and thinly sketched as in the young father's pants and stocking glide imperceptibly into more smoothly finished areas, and are set against places e.

This surface was made even more tactile by mixing fine sand into the paint. If in its treatment of the subject Fragonard's representation expresses both religious veneration and erotic display, the paint- ing itself would be both a precious and sensual object for the con- noisseur.

It is a small cabinet piece, intended for private enjoy- ment; a possession to be looked at and admired, perhaps even venerated. Remembering that the discourse on wet-nursing was particularly tuned to the elite mother-on the one hand assuming selfish and unnatural motives if she did not breast-feed and on the other hand encouraging her with the promise of emotional reward and sexual gratification- can we now see how Fragonard's Visit to the Wet Nurse partici- pated in the contemporary debate l Even if we assume an exclu- sively elite audience, we cannot be entirely certain whether the work is cautionary, preaches Rousseauian morality, or was designed to justify specific, continuing practices.

In short, neither the audience nor the artist can tell us if the practice depicted is condemned or praised. Finally, in addition to audience and artist we can turn to other contemporary paintings and texts. As already noted, the most obvious point of comparison between Fragonard's scene and other representations of wet-nursing is the contrast established be- tween urban elite and rural peasant. Of particular interest is the opposition between the ear- nest concern of the foster father and the natural one's detached insouciance.

Indeed, the whole scene is an ironic play on the Nativity story, with a pri- mary reference to the Flight into Egypt and a secondary one to the Adoration of the Shepherds. Mimicking the Virgin Mary, the elite mother sits on a small donkey overburdened by the visual weight of her voluminous skirts. Her husband, placed to lead the ass, takes the role of Joseph; but with his affected manner and unconcerned air, how unlike that simple carpenter he is!

The foster father, meanwhile, stands near the child like an adoring shepherd, his hands clasped in a praying gesture. The ruins and rural setting provide an appro- priate ambiance for such pastoral devotion. In Farewell to the Nurse the underlying structures do not render the overt meaning ambiguous; rather they reinforce it with wit and irony. Aubry clearly romanticizes the rural wet nurse to emphasize the theme of city versus country, and his presentation is in pointed contrast to what was widely known and expressed-that many children died in such circumstances. Can the message of Farewell to the Nurse easily be transferred to Fragonard's -painting?

We might press the case in this way: Their attentiveness is, after all,. Thus we can suggest that Visit to the Wet Nurse contains in a different and perhaps more sophisticated way the theme made so apparent by Aubry. And unlike the baby in Aubry's paint- ing, Fragonard's infant does not actively make its preference known, unless its turning away from the parents and looking toward the nurse is a meaningful gesture, which it very well might be. We should not be too quick to draw conclusions from this gesture, for the Christ Child also turns away from the Virgin in the Rembrandt painting copied by Fragonard.

Although Frago- nard's painting contains some of the very same components as that by Aubry, it cannot easily be resolved into a didactic tale told through a contrast of good and bad, country and city, ordinary folk and urban elite. Where, then, are we to turn in deciding whether Fragonard's image presents a direct or ironic response to social practices and ideals; whether it condemns, applauds, or otherwise comments on what it depicts?

For our purposes, we should read Fragonard's Visit according to how the established conventions of representation are deployed in the composition and formulate an interpretation that accounts for the idiosyncratic features of the image while allowing for contradiction and ambiguity. Turning again to the painting, what is most clear and unambig- uous is its compositional structure. Indeed, an emphatic triangu- lar arrangement of the figures is emphasized by their gazes; the children in the right corner look up at the mother and the mother looks down toward the cradled infant.

This composi- tional structure, so familiar from High Renaissance depictions of the Holy Family or the Madonna and Child, is perhaps itself sig- nificant in stressing the quasi-religious aspect of this work. There is, however, a notable insistence upon this geometric form. The triangular shape is repeated in the parted curtains, a furnish- ing widely used in Marian iconography and nativity narratives. The shape of its cover, with its broad base, sloping sides, and spherical top, references the design of the composition.

The top nicely corresponds to the mother's rounded hat and head, which mark the apex of the figural group. The prominent display of the shape leads the viewer to ask if the compositional arrange- ment of the figures points toward some satisfying interpretation of the scene. These three figures form an armature that governs the composition, and so conceived they make sense of the differing ages. Please enter a comment. Sorry, could not submit your comment. Kimeboy June 24, Unknown July 16, Please login ou register to add a video to collections. Some errors occurred, please try again later.

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• The Cop (Lost Love Series) (Erotic Romance)
• Localizing Islam in Europe: Turkish Islamic Communities in Germany and the Netherlands (Religion and Politics)
• Special Education