Army Manual - Temporaty Flying Restrictions Due to Exogenous Factors

Black Hawk door gunners certify

---

Facility Operation and Administration. Certification and Rating Procedures. Procedures for Handling Airspace Matters. Conduct of Airman Written Test. Airmen Other Than Crewmembers. Flight Operations and Airfield Management. Unit Supply Operations Manual Procedures. Communications Systems Grounding, Bonding, and Shielding.

Electric Power Generation in the Field. First Aid for Soldiers. Direct Support Maintenance Operations Nondivisional. Advanced Parachuting Techniques and Training. Joint Publication Joint Pub Test. Supply Bulletin SB When the altimeter shows an indicated altitude of 5, feet, the true altitude, or height above MSL, is 3, feet. Pressure altimeters are calibrated to indicate true altitude under international standard atmospheric ISA conditions. Any deviation from these standard conditions results in an erroneous reading on the altimeter.

The error is proportional to the difference between actual and ISA temperature and the height of the aircraft above the altimeter setting source. An example of cold-weather altimeter correction follows Figure , page The following guidance is an example of how to accomplish the procedure found in the FIH. An encoding altimeter is also known as an AIMS altimeter. When the air traffic control ATC transponder is set to Mode C, the encoding altimeter supplies the transponder with a series of pulses identifying the flight level in increments of feet at which the aircraft is flying. The transponder allows the ground controller to identify the aircraft under his control and determine the pressure altitude that the aircraft is flying.

A computer inside the encoding altimeter measures the pressure referenced from When the aviator adjusts the barometric scale to the local altimeter setting, the data sent to the transponder is not affected. Figure , page , shows an altimeter with a failed encoder displayed by a red blocked code off between the 8 and 9 on the altimeter. Flight Instruments and Systems Figure The radar altimeter, also known as an absolute altimeter, measures the height of the aircraft above terrain by transmitting a radio signal, either a frequency-modulated FM continuous-wave or a pulse to the ground, and accurately measuring the time used by the signal in traveling from the aircraft to the ground and returning.

This transit time is modified with a time delay and converted inside the indicator to distance in feet. For example, the utility helicopter UH vertical situation indicator has a DH advisory light that illuminates whenever the radar altimeter is operating and the altitude indicator is at or below the set altitude on the radar altimeter.

A radar altimeter has three main functions: An airspeed indicator is a differential pressure gauge that measures the dynamic pressure of the air through which the aircraft is flying. Dynamic pressure is the difference in ambient static air pressure and total, or ram, pressure caused by motion of the aircraft through the air.

These two pressures are taken from the pitot-static system. The mechanism of the airspeed indicator in Figure , page , consists of a thin, corrugated phosphor-bronze aneroid, or diaphragm, that receives its pressure from the pitot tube. The instrument case is sealed and connected to the static ports. As pitot pressure increases or static pressure decreases, the diaphragm expands. This dimensional change is measured by a rocking shaft and gears driving a pointer across the instrument dial.

Most airspeed indicators are calibrated in knots, or nautical miles per hour; some instruments show statute miles per hour, and some instruments show both. Mechanism of an airspeed indicator There are four types of airspeed. The four types are indicated, calibrated, equivalent, and true.

As airspeed and pressure altitude increase, the CAS becomes higher and a correction for compression must be subtracted from CAS. Aircraft equipped with TAS indicators have a temperature-compensated aneroid bellows inside the instrument case. These instruments have a conventional airspeed mechanism with an added subdial visible through cutouts in the regular dial.

A knob on the instrument allows rotation of the subdial and alignment of an indication of the outside air temperature with the pressure altitude being flown; this alignment causes the instrument pointer to indicate TAS on the subdial. In addition to the four airspeeds above, aviators must also consider and calculate ground speed.

Ground speed is the speed of an aircraft relative to the surface of the earth. Ground speed is TAS corrected for wind. Vertical speed indicator Inside of the instrument case is an aneroid also called a diaphragm much like the one in an airspeed indicator. Both the inside of this aneroid and the inside of the instrument case are vented to the static system. The case is vented through a calibrated orifice that causes pressure inside the case to change more slowly than pressure inside the aneroid.

As the aircraft ascends, static pressure becomes lower and pressure inside the case compresses the aneroid, moving the pointer upward—showing a climb and indicating the number of feet per minute FPM that the aircraft is ascending. When the aircraft levels off and static pressure is no longer changing, pressure inside the case becomes the same as that inside the aneroid and the pointer returns to the horizontal, or zero, position. When the aircraft descends, static pressure increases and the aneroids expand, moving the pointer downward, indicating a descent. The pointer indication in a VSI lags a few seconds behind the actual change in pressure.

The VSI is more sensitive than an altimeter and useful in alerting the aviator of an upward or downward trend, thereby helping maintain a constant altitude.

Search and menus

Instantaneous vertical speed indicators IVSIs Figure , page differ from VSI construction by having two accelerometer-actuated air pumps that sense an upward or downward pitch of the aircraft and instantaneously creating a pressure differential. By the time that pressure caused by the pitch acceleration dissipates, the altitude pressure change is effective. Because accelerometers are not vertically stabilized, some error is generated in turns.

If a zero indication is maintained on the IVSI when the aircraft is entering a turn, some loss in altitude will be encountered. A corresponding gain in altitude results when the aircraft is recovering from a turn. The IVSI should not be used for directly controlling vertical speed when the aircraft is rapidly banking in excess of 40 degrees. The indicator is not affected once the aircraft is in a steady turn. The fade-out of acceleration in a steady turn happens when a turn has been started and the accompanying change in normal acceleration has been completed. Fade-out occurs because the accelerator masses settle to new balance points corresponding to the normal acceleration maintained in the turn.

When a degree bank is being established, altitude deviation should not exceed 90 feet while the IVSI is maintained at zero. In more steeply banked turns, turn error rapidly increases with bank angle.

FM 1-303 REFERENCES SOURCES USED These are the sources

The Earth is a huge magnet surrounded by a magnetic field made up of invisible lines of flux. These lines leave the surface at the magnetic north pole and reenter at the magnetic South Pole. Lines of magnetic flux have two important characteristics: Most direction indicators installed in aircraft make use of one of these two characteristics. A magnet is a piece of material, usually a metal containing iron, which attracts and holds lines of magnetic flux.

Every magnet, regardless of size, has two poles: When one magnet is placed in the field of another, the unlike poles attract each other and like poles repel. The magnetic compass Figure , page is one of the oldest, simplest, and most basic instruments. AR requires a magnetic compass for all flights. The compass bowl is the interior portion of the compass card that supports the dial and float. The bowl is filled with liquid that has minimum volume and viscosity changes with temperature variations.

Some compasses have an expansion bellows to allow for fluid expansion. The bowl supports a metal float that has two small magnets attached to it. A graduated scale, called a card, is wrapped around the float and viewed through a glass window with a lubber line across the center of the glass. The float and card assembly has a hardened steel pivot in its center that rides inside a special, spring-loaded, hard-glass jewel cup. The buoyancy of the float takes most of the weight off the pivot, and the fluid dampens the oscillation of the float and card.

This jewel-and-pivot type of mounting allows the float to freely rotate and tilt about 18 degrees. Compass indications are erratic and unreliable at steeper bank angles. The compass card is marked with letters representing the cardinal directions—north, east, south, and west—and a number for each 30 degrees between these letters. Examples of Compass Card Degree Equivalents 3 equals 30 degrees 6 equals 60 degrees 33 equals degrees FM There are long and short graduation marks between the letters and numbers, with each long mark representing 10 degrees and each short mark representing 5 degrees.

The numbers and letters on the graduated scale are marked to allow the aviator to view the direction being flown. The markings appear backward from conventional compasses that are viewed from above. The Earth rotates about its geographic axis, and maps and charts are drawn using meridians of longitude that pass through the geographic poles. Directions measured from the geographic poles are called true directions.

The north magnetic pole, to which the magnetic compass points, is not collocated with the north geographic pole but is some 1, miles away. Directions measured from the magnetic poles are called magnetic directions. In aerial navigation, the difference between true and magnetic directions is called variation.

In surveying and land navigation, the difference is called declination. Figure , page , shows the isogonic lines that identify the number of degrees of variation in their area. The line that passes near Chicago is called the agonic line, and anywhere along this agonic line, the two poles are aligned and there is no variation. Lines of magnetic variation Variation values to the east of the agonic line are called westerly variation; the magnetic north pole is west of true north TN.

Likewise, the variation values west of the agonic line are known as easterly variation; the magnetic north pole is east of true north. Magnetic north MN changes in small amounts each year.

Aeronautical charts are updated periodically to correct for this yearly change. On instrument flight rules IFR en route low- and high-altitude charts, all radials and bearings are displayed as magnetic and, therefore, do not require the use of the compass correction formula. When aviators plot a course on an aeronautical chart, they measure the degrees of heading against latitude and longitude lines.

This measure is called a true heading TH because it is being measured relative to the true north pole. Because the aviator relies on the magnetic compass for direction, the aviator will be steering the aircraft relative to the magnetic north pole. Therefore, the aviator must convert the TH, as plotted on the navigation chart, to a magnetic heading MH by which to steer, using the compass.

In other words, the aviator must steer degrees magnetic to fly over a true heading of degrees. To find true heading when magnetic heading is known, the equation in the previous example is written in reverse. This procedure is shown in the following example. This is the reverse of changing from TH to MH. The 10 degrees west is subtracted from the MH degrees , and this figure degrees is the TH. Likewise, the 15 degrees east is added to the MH degrees , and this figure degrees is the TH. Magnets in a compass align with any magnetic field. To reduce deviation, the compensating assembly is adjusted as much as possible.

Figures from this card are applied to the indications of the compass so that a desired heading may be flown. Pilot compass correction card 30 April FM Chapter 1 Dip Error The lines of magnetic flux are considered to leave the Earth at the magnetic north pole and enter at the magnetic south pole. At the magnetic equator, which is halfway between the poles, the lines are parallel with the surface.

Magnets in the compass align with this field, and near the poles they dip, or tilt, the float and card. The float is balanced with a small dip-compensating weight and stays relatively level when operating in the middle latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The dip, along with this weight, causes two very noticeable errors: If an aircraft flying a heading of north makes a turn east, the aircraft banks to the right and the compass card tilts to the right.

If the turn is made from north to west, the aircraft banks to the left and the card tilts to the left. The magnetic field pulls on the end of the magnet, causing the card to rotate toward the east. This indication is, again, opposite to the direction in which the turn is being made. The rule for this error is the following: When an aircraft is flying on a heading of south and begins a turn east, the magnetic field of the earth pulls on the end of the magnet, rotating the card toward the east, the same direction in which the turn is being made. If the turn is made from the south toward the west, magnetic pull starts the card rotating toward the west, again; in the same direction in which the turn is being made.

When the aircraft is flying at a constant speed on a heading of either east or west, the float and card are level. Effects of magnetic dip and weight are FM Flight Instruments and Systems about equal. If the aircraft accelerates on a heading of east Figure , inertia of the weight holds its end of the float back and the card rotates toward north. The card swings back to its east indication as soon as the speed of the aircraft stabilizes. If, while flying on this easterly heading, the aircraft decelerates, inertia causes the weight to move ahead and the card rotates toward the south until the speed again stabilizes.

While the aircraft is flying on a heading of west, inertia from acceleration causes the weight to lag and the card rotates toward the north. When the aircraft decelerates on a heading of west, inertia causes the weight to move ahead and the card rotates toward the south.

A helpful way to remember acceleration error is the acronym ANDS: Oscillation is a combination of all other errors, including rough air or poor control technique, and results in the compass card swinging back and forth around the heading being flown. When setting the gyroscopic heading indicator to agree with the magnetic compass, use the average indication between the swings. The radio magnetic indicator RMI Figure , page is a navigational aid providing aircraft magnetic or directional gyro heading and very high frequency omnidirectional range VOR or automatic direction finder ADF bearing information.

Remote indicating compasses were developed to compensate for errors in and limitations of older types of heading indicators. The slaving control and compensator unit has a push button, providing a means of selecting either the slaved gyro or free gyro mode. This unit also has a slaving meter and two manual heading-drive buttons. The slaving meter indicates the difference between displayed heading and magnetic heading. A right deflection indicates a clockwise error of the compass card; a left deflection indicates a counterclockwise error.

When the aircraft is in a turn and the card rotates, the slaving meter shows a full deflection to one side or the other. When the system is in free gyro mode, the compass card may be adjusted by depressing the appropriate heading-drive button. Radio magnetic indicator The remote compass transmitter is a separate unit and is usually mounted in a wingtip to eliminate the possibility of magnetic interference. The remote compass transmitter contains the flux valve, which is the direction-sensing device of the system.

A concentration of lines of magnetic force, after being amplified, becomes a signal relayed to the heading indicator unit, which is remotely mounted. This signal operates a torque motor in the heading indicator unit, which precesses the gyro unit until aligned with the transmitter signal. The remote compass transmitter is connected electrically to the RMI.

A gyroscope is a wheel or rotor mounted to spin rapidly around an axis. The gyroscope is free to rotate about one axis or both axes that are perpendicular to each other and the axis of spin. A spinning gyroscope offers resistance inertia to any force that tends to change the direction of the axis of spin. The rotor has great weight high density for its size and is rotated at high speeds; therefore, it offers high resistance to any applied force. When spinning, the rotor remains in its original plane of rotation regardless of how the base is moved and the aircraft rotates about the rotor.

Attitude and heading instruments operate on the principle of rigidity. Precession is the resultant action or deflection of a spinning rotor when a deflective force is applied to its rim. Precession causes a force applied to a spinning wheel to be felt 90 degrees from the point of application in the direction of rotation Figure , page Rate indicators, such as the turn-and-slip indicator and turn coordinator, operate on the principle of precession.

Precession diagram Instrument Power Sources Army aircraft use electrical power to keep rotors of gyroscopic instruments rotating continuously. At higher altitudes and lower temperatures, electrically-operated gyroscopes have proven more reliable than vacuum-driven gyroscopes. In electrically-driven gyroscopes, the rotor and stator of an electric motor are enclosed in a gyroscopic housing and become, in effect, the gyro.

The gyro, or rotor, is operated on current supplied from the electrical system of the aircraft. An advantage of this system is that the instrument case can be hermetically sealed, eliminating the danger of moisture condensation while blocking foreign material.

When the gyro reaches operating speed, enough heat is generated to ensure effective lubrication at altitudes where the outside air temperature is extremely low. The attitude indicator was originally referred to as an artificial horizon and later as a gyro horizon. Its operating mechanism is a small brass wheel with a vertical spin axis, spun at a high speed by an electric motor Figure , page The gyro is mounted in a double gimbal, allowing the aircraft to pitch and roll about the gyro, which remains fixed in space.

A horizon disk is attached to the gimbals, which keeps the horizon disk in the same plane as the gyro while the aircraft pitches and rolls. On early instruments, a bar represented the horizon, but now a disc with a line represents the horizon, both pitch marks, and bank-angle lines. The top half of the instrument dial and horizon disc is blue or white, representing sky; the bottom half is brown or black, representing ground. A bank index at the top or bottom of the instrument shows the bank angle marked on the banking scale with any possible variation of lines representing 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, or 90 degrees based on manufacturer criteria.

Mounted in the instrument case is a small symbolic aircraft, which appears to fly relative to the horizon. A knob at the bottom center of the instrument case raises or lowers the aircraft to compensate for pitch trim changes as airspeed changes. The width of wings of the symbolic aircraft and the dot in the center of the wings represent a pitch change of about 1 to 2 degrees.

When an aircraft engine is first started and electric power is supplied to the instruments, the gyro is not erect. A self-erecting mechanism inside the instrument, actuated by the force of gravity, applies a precessive force, causing the gyro to rise to its vertical position. This erection can take as long as five minutes but is normally complete within two to three minutes. Attitude indicators are free from most errors, but depending upon the speed with which the erection system functions, there may be a slight nose-up indication during a rapid acceleration and a nose-down indication during a rapid deceleration.

A small bank angle and pitch error may occur after a degree turn. These inherent errors are small and correct themselves quickly after the aircraft returns to straight-and-level flight.

The first gyroscopic aircraft instrument was the turn-and-bank indicator. More recently, it has been called a turn-and-slip indicator Figure , page The inclinometer in the instrument is a black glass ball sealed inside a curved glass tube partially filled with a liquid, much like compass fluid. This ball measures relative strength of the force of gravity and force of inertia caused by a turn.

When the aircraft is flying straight-and-level, no inertia is acting on the ball, and the ball remains in the center of the tube between two wires. In a turn made with too steep a bank angle, the force of gravity is greater than inertia and the ball rolls down to the inside of the turn. If the turn is made with too shallow a bank angle, inertia is greater than gravity and the ball rolls upward to the outside of the turn.

The inclinometer only indicates the relationship between bank angle and rate of yaw. A small gyro, located in either device, is spun either by air or by an electric motor Figure The gyro is mounted in a single gimbal with its spin axis parallel to the lateral axis of the aircraft and axis of the gimbal parallel with the longitudinal axis. When the aircraft yaws, or rotates about its vertical axis, a force is produced in the horizontal plane that, because of precession, causes the gyro and its gimbal to rotate about the gimbal axis.

The gyro is restrained in this rotation plane by a calibration spring—rolling over just enough to cause the pointer to deflect until aligned with one of the doghouse-shaped marks on the dial when the aircraft is making a standard-rate turn. In either instrument, a standard-rate turn is being made whenever the needle aligns with a doghouse-shaped mark. The major limitation of the older turn-and-slip indicator is the sensing of rotation only about the vertical axis of the aircraft, telling nothing of the rotation around the longitudinal axis, which in normal flight, occurs before the aircraft begins to turn.

A turn coordinator operates on precession, the same as the turn indicator, but its gimbal frame is angled upward about 30 degrees from the longitudinal axis of the aircraft, allowing a sense of roll and yaw. Some turn coordinator gyros are dual-powered and can be driven by air or electricity. Rather than using a needle as an indicator, the gimbal moves a dial in which the rear view is of a symbolic aircraft. The inclinometer, similar to the one in a turn-and-slip indicator, is called a coordination ball.

It shows the relationship between bank angle and rate of yaw. The turn is coordinated when the ball is in the center between the marks. The aircraft is skidding when the ball rolls toward the outside of the turn and is slipping when it is moving toward the inside of the turn. A turn coordinator does not sense changing pitch attitudes of the aircraft. Many newer aircraft are equipped with a flight management system FMS consisting of a flight management computer FMC , one or more control display units CDUs , an internal navigation database, and various displays and annunciators electrically powered indicators.

The FMS uses aircraft sensors and navigation database information to compute and display aircraft position, performance data, and navigation information during all phases of flight. The FMS may interface and provide data and signals to autopilot, flight director, and engine fuel control systems. From this sensor data, the FMC computes and continually updates the aircraft present position throughout the flight. Using this aircraft position information, navigation functions—such as course and distance to a waypoint, desired track, ground speed, and estimated time of arrival—are computed and displayed on the CDU and other aircraft instruments.

Navigation information may also be provided in the form of steering commands to autopilot and flight director systems. In addition, fuel-flow information may be used by the FMC to calculate and update fuel consumption and specific range. The CDU normally consists of a display screen, data-entry pad, and function and line select keys. The CDU allows menu-driven selection of various FMS modes such as initialization, fuel planning, performance, and navigation.

The aviator may input a flight-plan route, vertical profile and speed information, aircraft weight and fuel parameters, and certain waypoint data into the FMC. Data from the navigation database may be displayed and reviewed by the aviator on the CDU. An FMS normally contains an internal navigation database with either regional or worldwide coverage.

The database typically includes information on navigation aids, airports, runways, waypoints, routes, airways, intersections, departures, arrivals, and instrument approaches. Aircrews may also store defined routes and waypoints in the database. Navigation databases require periodic updates, normally on a day cycle, to ensure that data are current. The horizontal situation indicator HSI is a direction indicator that uses the output from a flux valve to drive the dial, which acts as the compass card.

This instrument Figure combines the magnetic compass with navigation signals and a glide slope. The HSI gives the aviator an indication of the location of the aircraft with relationship to the chosen course. In Figure , page , the aircraft heading displayed on the rotating azimuth card under the upper lubber line is degrees.

The course-indicating arrowhead shown is set to degrees; the tail indicates the reciprocal, degrees. Horizontal situation indicator The desired course is selected by rotating the course select pointer, in relation to the azimuth card, by means of the course select knob. The HSI shows the fixed aircraft symbol and course deviation bar to display relative position to the selected course.

When the indicator points to the head of the course, the arrow shows the course selected, if properly intercepted and flown, will take the aircraft to the chosen facility. When the indicator points to the tail of the course, the arrow shows that the course selected, if properly intercepted and flown, will take the aircraft directly away from the chosen facility. The glide-slope pointer indicates the relation of the aircraft to the glide slope. When the pointer is below the center position, the aircraft is above the glide slope and an increased rate of descent is required. In some installations, the azimuth card is a remote indicating compass; however, in others the heading must be checked occasionally against the magnetic compass and reset.

The vertical situation indicator accepts command instrument system processor signals and displays the flight command information needed to arrive at a predetermined point. The system also monitors and displays warnings when selected navigation instrument readings lack reliability. An example of a vertical situation indicator is the 30 April FM Chapter 1 one installed in a UH Figure , which in addition to the typical items listed above, has pitch and roll command bars and a collective position pointer.

UH vertical situation indicator FM Chapter 2 Rotary Wing Instrument Flight Maneuvers Instrument flying in helicopters is essentially visual flying with the flight instruments substituted for various reference points on the helicopter and natural horizon. Control changes, required to produce a given attitude by reference to instruments, are identical to those used in helicopter visual flight rules VFR flight; therefore, the thought processes remain the same. Proper instrument interpretation is the basis for aircraft control during instrument flying.

Pilot Contents skill, in part, depends on an understanding of how a particular instrument or system functions, including Section I — Maneuver Performance Aircraft attitude is the relationship of its Section V — Straight Climbs and longitudinal and lateral axes to the horizon of the Descents An aircraft is flown in instrument flight by Section VI — Turns All basic instrument maneuvers require correct attitude and power settings.

Control instruments display immediate attitude and power indications and are calibrated to permit attitude and power adjustments in precise amounts. Control is determined by reference to the power and attitude indicators figure , page , bold dashed boxes. These power indicators vary with aircraft and may include tachometers and torque. Chapter 2 Figure Performance is determined by referencing the airspeed indicator, turn-and-slip indicator, heading indicator, altimeter, and VSI Figure , bold dashed boxes. Performance instruments of a UH FM Navigation instruments indicate aircraft position in relation to a selected navigation facility or fix.

Some aircraft have navigation instrument indications combined with the attitude indicator and other instruments. Procedural steps are provided to guide the aviator to successfully react and apply the appropriate flight control inputs based on indications derived from control, performance, and navigation instruments.

When noting a deviation, determine the magnitude and direction of adjustment required to achieve desired performance. Another basic method for presenting attitude instrument flying classifies instruments as they relate to control function and aircraft performance table , page Attitude control is stressed in terms of pitch figure , page , bank figure , page , power, and trim.

Chapter 2 Table Pitch control instruments Figure Bank control instruments FM Rotary Wing Instrument Flight Maneuvers For any maneuver or condition of flight, the pitch, bank, and power control requirements are most clearly indicated by specific maneuver instruments table The instruments that provide the most pertinent and essential information are referred to as primary instruments.

Supporting instruments back up and supplement information shown on primary instruments. Straight-and-level flight at a constant airspeed, for example, means an exact altitude is to be maintained with no bank constant heading. The pitch, bank, and power instruments that provide data related to maintaining this flight condition are the following: Although the attitude indicator is the basic attitude reference, this concept of primary and supporting instruments does not devalue any particular flight instrument.

The attitude indicator is the only instrument that portrays instantly and directly the actual flight attitude. Always use the attitude indicator, when available, in establishing and maintaining pitch-and-bank attitudes. Instrument maneuvers presented, in detail, in later sections of this chapter identify the specific use of primary and supporting instruments. Three fundamental skills needed to achieve smooth, positive control of the helicopter during instrument flight are instrument cross-check, instrument interpretation, and aircraft control.

A major factor influencing a cross-check, or scanning technique, is the way in which instruments respond to attitude and power changes. The control instruments provide a direct and immediate indication of attitude and power changes, but indications on the performance instruments will lag. When the attitude and power are smoothly controlled, the lag factor is negligible and the indications on the performance instruments will stabilize or change smoothly.

Do not make abrupt control movements in response to the lagging indications on the performance instruments without first checking the control instruments. Failure to do so leads to erratic aircraft maneuvers, which will cause additional fluctuations and lag in the performance instruments.

Account Options

Frequent scanning of the control instruments assists in maintaining smooth aircraft control. The attitude indicator is the instrument that should be used to develop all maneuvering attitudes and be scanned most frequently. A description of a typical scan is as follows: New aviators will typically perform cross-checks by rapidly looking at each instrument without knowing exactly what to look for. With increasing experience and familiarity in basic instrument maneuvers and the indications associated with them, aviators learn what to look for, when to look, and what response to make.

As proficiency increases, cross-checking occurs primarily from habit, with the aviator suiting scanning rate and sequence to the flight situation demands. If an aviator fails to maintain basic instrument proficiency through practice, many of the following common scanning errors are expected. An aid to remembering cross-check errors is the acronym FOE: Fixation, staring at a single instrument, usually occurs for a good reason but has poor results.

For instance, an aviator staring at an altimeter reading feet below the assigned altitude may wonder how the needle came to rest there. While the aviator is gazing at the instrument, perhaps with increasing tension on the controls, a heading change occurs unnoticed and more errors accumulate. The following example describes how fixation can occur.

Although the aircraft is turning and the aviator does not need to recheck the heading indicator for about 25 seconds after turn entry, his eyes are fixated on the instrument. This problem may not be entirely due to cross-check error but may relate to difficulties with the uncertainty of reading the heading indicator interpretation or inconsistency in rolling out of turns control.

Omission of an instrument from a cross-check is caused by failure to anticipate significant instrument indications following attitude changes. The following example illustrates how this situation could occur. Because of precession error, the attitude indicator temporarily shows a slight error, correctable by quick reference to the other flight instruments. Emphasis on a single instrument, instead of all instruments necessary for attitude information, is an understandable fault during initial stages of training.

An individual naturally tends to rely on the instrument most readily understood, even when that instrument provides erroneous or inadequate information. Reliance on a single instrument is poor technique. An aviator can maintain reasonably close altitude control with the attitude indicator but cannot hold altitude with precision without including the altimeter in the cross-check. Instrument interpretation requires aviators to learn and understand the purpose and use of all flight instruments.

They must also understand the performance capabilities of the aircraft. Figure illustrates the difference between two different aircraft, both performing a five-minute climb, with the same attitude indicator setting and the same power setting. The CH is able to climb higher and faster and fly further in five minutes because it has better performance than the TH Instrument interpretation comparison 30 April FM Aircraft attitude is the key to instrument interpretation as aviators learn the performance capabilities of the aircraft.

When the aviator determines pitch attitude, the airspeed indicator, altimeter, VSI, and attitude indicator provide necessary information. When the aviator determines bank attitude, the heading indicator, turn-and-slip indicator, and attitude indicator are interpreted.

For each maneuver, learn the performance expectations and the combination of instruments to be interpreted to control aircraft attitude. Helicopter control is the result of accurately interpreting and translating flight instrument readings into correct control responses. Aircraft control involves adjustments to pitch, bank, power, and trim to achieve a desired flight path. Pitch attitude control is controlling movement of the helicopter about its lateral axis.

After interpreting pitch attitude by reference to the pitch instruments attitude indicator, altimeter, airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator , cyclic control adjustments are made to affect the desired pitch attitude. Bank attitude control is controlling the angle made by the lateral tilt of the rotor and natural horizon, or movement of the helicopter about its longitudinal axis.

Cyclic control adjustments are made to attain the desired attitude based on proper interpretation of bank instruments attitude indicator, heading indicator, and turn indicator. Use a bank angle that approximates the degree to turn up to a standard rate turn try not to exceed 30 degrees.

Black Hawk door gunners certify

Power control is the application of collective pitch. In straight-and-level flight, changes of collective pitch are made to correct for altitude deviations if the error is more than feet or the airspeed deviates by more than 10 knots. If the error is less than that amount, use a slight cyclic climb or descent.

To fly a helicopter by instrument reference, knowledge of the approximate power settings is required for that particular helicopter in various load configurations and flight conditions. Trim refers to the use of the cyclic centering button, if the helicopter is so equipped, to relieve possible cyclic pressures. Airmen Other Than Crewmembers. Flight Operations and Airfield Management.

Unit Supply Operations Manual Procedures. Communications Systems Grounding, Bonding, and Shielding. Electric Power Generation in the Field. First Aid for Soldiers.

Direct Support Maintenance Operations Nondivisional. Advanced Parachuting Techniques and Training. Joint Publication Joint Pub Test. Supply Bulletin SB Technical Bulletins TB Equipment Improvement Report and Maintenance Digest: Maintenance of Supplies and Equipment: Technical Manuals TM

• Taxi Driver (Death Days #4)
• TIM JONAS
• Frugal Freedom: Be a millionaire and retire in your 40s on one small salary while you travel the world and spend more time with family and friends
• The Biggest Jackpot: Part III Trailer Park to Threesome Sex (Voyeurs & Exhibitionists Series)
• The parable of the Sower: and other mysteries of Christs Kingdom
• Booklet: How to Plan a Great Second Life: What are you going to do with your extra 30 years?
• Tall, Dark Streak of Lightning (The Dark Lightning Trilogy Book 1)