The British War Economy (HMSO Official History of WWII Civil)

HISTORY OF THE SECOND WORLD WAR

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Advice about eating a healthier diet and home growing produce was distributed. Slogans like "Digging for Victory" and "Make Do and Mend" appeared on national posters and became a part of the war effort. The city environment made these efforts nearly negligible. The official ration provided starvation-level diets of 1, or fewer calories a day kJ , supplemented by home gardens and, especially, black market purchases.

The Dutch famine of , known as the Hongerwinter "Hunger winter" was a man-made famine imposed by Germany in the occupied western provinces during the winter of — A German blockade cut off food and fuel shipments from farm areas. A total of 4.

The Nazi Hunger Plan was to kill the Jews of Poland quickly, and slowly to force the Poles to leave by threat of starvation, so that they could be replaced by German settlers. The Nazis coerced Poles to work in Germany by providing favorable food rations for families who had members working in the Reich. The ethnic German population in Poland Volksdeutsche were given good rations and were allowed to shop for food in special stores. The German occupiers created a draconian system of food controls, including severe penalties for the omnipresent black market.

There was a sharp increase in mortality due to the general malnutrition, and a decline in birth rates. By mid , the German minority in Poland received 2, calories 11, kJ per day, while Poles received and Jews in the ghetto Only the ration allocated to Germans provided the full required calorie intake. Distribution of food in Nazi occupied Poland as of December [24].

Additionally the Generalplan Ost of the Nazis, which envisioned the elimination of the Slavic population in the occupied territories and artificial famines-as proposed in the Hunger Plan , were to be used. On September 1, , Germany invaded Poland, conquering it in three weeks, as the Soviets invaded the eastern areas. During the German occupation, there were two distinct civilian uprisings in Warsaw, one in , the other in The Germans built high walls around the ghetto, and crowded , Polish Jews into it, many from the Polish provinces.

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At first, people were allowed to enter and leave the ghetto, but soon its border became an "iron curtain". Unless on official business, Jews could not leave, and non-Jews, including Germans, could not enter.

Entry points were guarded by German soldiers. Because of extreme conditions and hunger, mortality in the ghetto was high. In , the Germans moved , ghetto residents to Treblinka where they were gassed on arrival. By April 19, , when the Ghetto Uprising commenced, the population of the ghetto had dwindled to 60, individuals.

In the following three weeks, virtually all died as the Germans fought and systematically destroyed the buildings in the ghetto. The uprising by Poles began on August 1, , when the Polish underground, the "Home Army", aware that the Soviet Army had reached the eastern bank of the Vistula, sought to liberate Warsaw much as the French resistance had liberated Paris a few weeks earlier. Joseph Stalin had his own group of Communist leaders for the new Poland and did not want the Home Army or its leaders based in London to control Warsaw.

Home front during World War II

So he halted the Soviet offensive and gave the Germans free rein to suppress it. During the ensuing 63 days, , Poles of the Home Army surrendered to the Germans. After the Germans forced all the surviving population to leave the city, Hitler ordered that any buildings left standing be dynamited — 98 percent of the buildings in Warsaw were destroyed. During the invasion of the Soviet Union in the early months of the war, rapid German advances almost captured the cities of Moscow and Leningrad.

The bulk of Soviet industry which could not be evacuated was either destroyed or lost due to German occupation. Agricultural production was interrupted, with grain crops left standing in the fields. This caused hunger reminiscent of the early s. In one of the greatest feats of war logistics, factories were evacuated on an enormous scale, with 1, factories dismantled and shipped eastwards along four principal routes to the Caucasus , Central Asia , the Ural , and Siberia.

The whole of the Soviet Union become dedicated to the war effort. The people of the Soviet Union were probably better prepared than any other nation involved in World War II to endure the material hardships of the war — primarily because they were so used to shortages and economic crisis in the past, especially during wartime—World War I had brought similar restrictions on food.

HyperWar: British War Economy (UK Civil Series)

In Leningrad, under German siege, over a million people died of starvation and disease. Many factory workers were teenagers, women and old people. The government implemented rationing in and first applied it to bread, flour, cereal, pasta, butter, margarine, vegetable oil, meat, fish, sugar and confectionery all across the country. The rations remained largely stable in other places [ clarification needed ] during the war.

Off-ration food was often so expensive that it could not add substantially to a citizen's food supply unless they were especially well-paid. Peasants received no rations and had to make do with any local resources they farmed themselves. Most rural peasants struggled and lived in unbearable poverty, but others sold their surplus food at a high price; a few became rouble millionaires, until a currency reform two years after the end of the war wiped out their wealth. Despite harsh conditions, the war led to a spike in Soviet nationalism and unity.

Soviet propaganda toned down extreme Communist rhetoric of the past as the people now rallied to protect their Motherland against the evils of the German invaders. Ethnic minorities thought to be collaborators were forced into exile. Religion, which was previously shunned, became a part of a Communist Party propaganda campaign to mobilize religious people. Soviet society changed drastically during the war.

There was a burst of marriages in June and July between people about to be separated by the war, and in the next few years the marriage rate dropped off steeply, with the birth rate following shortly thereafter to only about half of what it would have been in peacetime. For this reason mothers with several children during the war received substantial honors and money benefits if they had several children—mothers could earn around 1, rubles for having their fourth child and up to 5, rubles for their tenth.

Hunger, malnutrition, disease, starvation, and even cannibalism became common during the siege, which lasted from September until January Many people lost weight, and grew weaker and more vulnerable to disease. If malnutrition persisted for long enough, its effects were irreversible. People's feelings of loyalty disappeared if they got hungry enough; they would steal from their closest family members in order to survive. Only some of the citizens of Leningrad survived.

Only , were evacuated before the siege began; this left 2. Subsequently, more managed to escape; especially when the nearby Lake Ladoga froze over and people could walk over the ice road—or "road of life"—to safety. Some factory owners even looted state funds to secure transport out of the city during the first summer of the war. Most survival strategies during the siege, though, involved staying within the city and facing the problems through resourcefulness or luck: Workers received larger rations than other civilians, and factories were likely to have electricity if they produced vital goods.

Factories also served as mutual support centers, and had clinics and other services like cleaning crews and teams of women who would sew and repair clothes. Factory employees were still driven to desperation on occasion and people resorted to eating glue or horsemeat in factories where food was scarce, but factory employment was the most consistently successful method of survival, and at some food production plants not a single person died.

Survival opportunities open to the wider Soviet community included barter and farming on private land. Black markets thrived as private barter and trade became more common, especially between soldiers and civilians. Soldiers, who had more food to spare, were eager to trade with civilians who had extra warm clothes to exchange. Planting vegetable gardens in the spring became popular, primarily because citizens could keep everything grown on their own plots. The campaign also had a potent psychological effect and boosted morale, a survival component almost as crucial as bread.

Many of the most desperate Soviet citizens turned to crime to support themselves. Most common was the theft of food and of ration cards; this could prove fatal for a malnourished person if their card was stolen more than a day or two before a new card was issued. For these reasons, the stealing of food was severely punished and a person could be shot for as little as stealing a loaf of bread. More serious crimes such as murder and cannibalism also occurred, and special police squads were set up to combat these crimes, though by the end of the siege, roughly 1, had been arrested for cannibalism.

In the United States, farming and other production was increased. For example, citizens were encouraged to plant "victory gardens", personal farms that children sometimes worked on.

Zuckerman’s apes

The Philippines was an American possession on the way to independence scheduled in and controlled its own internal affairs. The Japanese invaded and quickly conquered the islands in early The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government structure in the Philippines and established the Philippine Executive Commission. They initially organized a Council of State , through which they directed civil affairs until October , when they declared the Philippines an independent republic.

Laurel proved to be ineffective and unpopular as Japan maintained very tight controls. Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground and guerrilla activity.

The Philippine Army , as well as remnants of the U. Army Forces Far East continued to fight the Japanese in a guerrilla war. They formed an auxiliary unit of the United States Army. Their effectiveness was such that by the end of the war, Japan controlled only twelve of the forty-eight provinces. One element of resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the Hukbalahap , which armed some 30, people and extended their control over much of Luzon. As in most occupied countries, crime, looting, corruption, and black markets were endemic.

For example, Japan had a surplus of sugar from Taiwan, and a severe shortage of cotton, so they try to grow cotton in on sugar lands with disastrous results. They lacked the seeds, pesticides, and technical skills to grow cotton. Jobless farm workers flock to the cities, where there was minimal relief and few jobs. The Japanese Army also tried using cane sugar for fuel, castor beans and copra for oil, derris for quinine, cotton for uniforms, and abaca hemp for rope. The plans were very difficult to implement in the face of limited skills, collapsed international markets, bad weather, and transportation shortages.

The program was a failure that gave very little help to Japanese industry, and diverted resources needed for food production. Living conditions were bad throughout the Philippines during the war. Transportation between the islands was difficult because of lack of fuel. Food was in very short supply, with sporadic famines and epidemic diseases [48] [49]. The Japanese tried to remove all Western and American cultural influences. They met fierce resistance when they tried to undermine the Catholic Church by arresting Christian missionaries. The Filipinos came to feel morally superior to the brutal Japanese and rejected their advances.

The Japanese tried to reshape schools and impose the Japanese language. They formed neighborhood associations to inform on the opposition. Britain's total mobilisation during this period proved to be successful in winning the war, by maintaining strong support from public opinion. The war was a "people's war" that enlarged democratic aspirations and produced promises of a postwar welfare state. It lost aircraft in France [ when? The government decided to concentrate on only five types of aircraft in order to optimise output. These aircraft received extraordinary priority, which covered the supply of materials and equipment and even made it possible to divert from other types the necessary parts, equipment, materials and manufacturing resources.

Labour was moved from other aircraft work to factories engaged on the specified types. Cost was no object. The delivery of new fighters rose from in April to in September—more than enough to cover the losses—and Fighter Command emerged triumphantly from the Battle of Britain in October with more aircraft than it had possessed at the beginning. Food, clothing, petrol, leather and other items were rationed. Perishable items such as fruit were not rationed.

Access to luxuries was severely restricted, although there was also a significant black market. Families also grew " victory gardens ", and small home vegetable gardens. Many goods were conserved to turn into weapons later, such as fat for nitroglycerin production. People in the countryside were less affected by rationing as they had greater access to locally sourced unrationed products than people in cities, and were more able to grow their own.

The rationing system, which was originally based on a specific basket of goods for each consumer, was much improved by switching to a points system which allowed housewives to make choices based on their own priorities. Food rationing also permitted the upgrading of the quality of the food available, and housewives approved—except for the absence of white bread and the government's imposition of an unpalatable wheat meal " national loaf ".

Surveys of public opinion showed that most Britons were pleased that rationing brought equality and a guarantee of a decent meal at an affordable cost. From very early in the war, it was thought that the major industrial cities of Britain, especially London, would come under Luftwaffe air attack; this did happen in The Blitz.

Some children were sent to Canada, the USA and Australia, and millions of children and some mothers were evacuated from London and other major cities to safer parts of the country when the war began, under government plans for the evacuation of civilians , but they often filtered back. When the Blitz bombing began on September 6, , they evacuated again. The discovery of the poor health and hygiene of evacuees was a shock to many Britons, and helped prepare the way for the Beveridge Report.

Children were evacuated if their parents agreed; but in some cases they had no choice. The children were only allowed to take a few things with them, including a gas mask, books, money, clothes, ration book and some small toys. An Emergency Hospital Service was established at the beginning of the war, in the expectation that it would be required to deal with large numbers of casualties.

A common theme called for an expansion of the welfare state as a reward to the people for their wartime sacrifices. It recommended that the various forms of assistance that had grown up piecemeal since be rationalised. Unemployment benefits and sickness benefits were to be universal. There would be new benefits for maternity. The old-age pension system would be revised and expanded, and require that a person retired.

A full-scale National Health Service would provide free medical care for everyone. All the major political parties endorsed the principles, and they were largely put into effect when peace returned. The themes of equality and sacrifice were dominant during the war, and in the memory of the war. Historian Jose Harris points out that the war was seen at the time and by a generation of writers as a period of outstanding national unity and social solidarity.

There was little antiwar sentiment during or after the war. Furthermore, Britain turned more toward the collective welfare state during the war, expanding it in the late s and reaching a broad consensus supporting it across party lines. By the s and s, however, historians were exploring the subtle elements of continuing diversity and conflict in society during the war period. Later historians pointed to the many localised unofficial strikes, especially in coal mining, shipbuilding, the metal trades and engineering, with as many as 3.

The BBC collected 47, wartime recollections and 15, images in and put them online. Canada joined the war effort on September 10, ; the government deliberately waited after Britain's decision to go to war, partly to demonstrate its independence from Britain and partly to give the country extra time to import arms from the United States as a non-belligerent.

Canada became one of the largest trainers of pilots for the Allies through the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan. Many Canadian men joined the war effort, so with them overseas and industries pushing to increase production, women took up positions to aid in the war effort. The hiring of men in many positions in civilian employment was effectively banned later in the war through measures taken under the National Resources Mobilization Act.. Shipyards and repair facilities expanded dramatically as over a thousand warships and cargo vessels were built, along with thousands of auxiliary craft, small boats and others.

Canada expanded food production, but shipped so much to Britain that food rationing had to be imposed. The main goal was to integrate the marginalized European ethnicities—in contrast to the First World War policy of internment camps for Ukrainians and Germans. In the case of Germany, Italy and especially Japan, the government watched minorities closely for signs of loyalty to their homelands. The fears proved groundless. Most went to the Toronto area.

Canadian women responded to urgent appeals to make do, recycle and salvage in order to come up with needed supplies. They saved fats and grease; gathered recycled goods; handed out information on the best ways to get the most out of recycled goods; and organized many other events to decrease the amount of waste. Volunteer organizations led by women also prepared packages for the military overseas and for prisoners of war in Axis countries.

With World War II came a dire need for employees in the workplace. Without women to step in, the economy would have collapsed. By autumn there were twice as many women working full-time in Canada's paid labour force as in The government greatly expanded its powers in order to better direct the war effort, and Australia's industrial and human resources were focused on supporting the Australian and American armed forces.

There were a few Japanese attacks, most notably on Darwin in February , along with the widespread fear in , that Australia would be invaded. Australia entered the war in and sent its forces to fight the Germans in the Middle East where they were successful and Singapore where they were captured by the Japanese in The Curtin Labor Government took over in October , and energised the war effort, with rationing of scarce fuel, clothing and some food.

When Japan entered the war in December , the danger was at hand, and all women and children were evacuated from Darwin and northern Australia. The Commonwealth Government took control of all income taxation in , which gave it extensive new powers and greatly reduced the states' financial autonomy.

Manufacturing grew rapidly, with the assembly of high performance guns and aircraft a specialty. The number of women working in factories rose from , to , New Zealand, with a population of 1. The Labour party was in power and promoted unionisation and the welfare state. The armed forces peaked at , in September ; , served abroad, and 10, died. Agriculture expanded, sending record supplies of meat, butter and wool to Britain.

When American forces arrived, they were fed as well. Montgomerie shows that the war dramatically increased the roles of women, especially married women, in the labour force. Most of them took traditional female jobs. Some replaced men but the changes here were temporary and reversed in After the war, women left traditional male occupations and many women gave up paid employment to return home.

There was no radical change in gender roles but the war intensified occupational trends under way since the s. Britain declared war on behalf of India without consulting with Indian leaders. The British recruited some 2. India became the main base for British operations against Japan, and for American efforts to support China. In Bengal, with an elected Muslim local government under British supervision, the cutoff of rice imports from Burma led to severe food shortages, made worse by maladministration.

Prices soared and millions starved because they could not buy food. In the Bengal famine of , three million people died. It was under Japanese army control and performed poorly in combat. In postwar Indian politics, some Indians called them heroes. The Congress Party in demanded immediate independence, which Britain rejected. Congress then demanded the British immediately " Quit India " in August , but the Raj responded by immediately jailing tens of thousands of national, state and regional leaders; knocking Congress out of the war.

Meanwhile, the Muslim League supported the war effort and gained prestige and membership, as well as British support for its demands for a separate Muslim state which became Pakistan in Hong Kong was a British colony captured by Japan on December 25, , after 18 days of fierce fighting. The conquest was swift, but was followed by days of large-scale looting; over ten thousand Chinese women were raped or gang-raped by the Japanese soldiers. The Japanese imprisoned the ruling British colonial elite and sought to win over the local merchant gentry by appointments to advisory councils and neighbourhood watch groups.

The policy worked well for Japan and produced extensive collaboration from both the elite and the middle class, with far less terror than in other Chinese cities. Hong Kong was transformed into a Japanese colony, with Japanese businesses replacing the British. The Japanese Empire had severe logistical difficulties and by the food supply for Hong Kong was problematic.

The overlords became more brutal and corrupt, and the Chinese gentry became disenchanted. With the surrender of Japan the transition back to British rule was smooth, for on the mainland the Nationalist and Communists forces were preparing for a civil war and ignored Hong Kong.

In the long run the occupation strengthened the pre-war social and economic order among the Chinese business community by eliminating some conflicts of interests and reducing the prestige and power of the British. Germany had not fully mobilized in , nor even in Zuckerman began his war work by searching for experimental methods by which to assess the physical effects of bomb blast on the human frame. As he reviewed the existing literature, however, he soon detected the sort of speculative anecdotalism that he had encountered in animal sociology.

He also identified its root cause: The long-standing and complex debates about the physical and psychogenic aetiologies of shell shock need no detailed retelling here. The mysterious element of shell shock, one that preoccupied practitioners and commentators alike, stemmed from its capacity to visit its damaging effects without leaving obvious signs of physical trauma. At his subsequent Lettsomian Lecture Mott related further mystifying accounts of the human encounter with high explosive charge.

In one corner seven Turks, with their rifles across their knees, are sitting together.

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One man has his arm around the neck of his friend and a smile on his face as if they had been cracking a joke when death overwhelmed them. All now have the appearance of being merely asleep; for of the seven I only see one who shows any outward injury. The base-line assumption for blast researchers was that a single post-mortem sign at times found upon victims — blood-stained fluid around the mouth and nose — indicated traumatic haemorrhage of the pulmonary vascular system.

But though researchers had agreed on this explanation, they remained divided as to the mechanism by which these injuries were inflicted. By the end of the s there were three competing explanatory models. David Dale Logan of the Royal Army Medical Corps proposed that the suction component of the blast wave acted through the respiratory passages to lower alveolar pressure, resulting in capillary rupture Logan, His task, then, would be to complete, through experimental demonstration, the demystification of blast.

First, since the home front faced significant exposure to blast, public understanding of its effects would be important for averting panic. Instead of rational understanding, however, Zuckerman identified in the contemporary literature precisely the opposite tendency — a fear-inducing discourse grounded in rumour and anecdote generated not only by popular writers like John Langdon-Davies but publicly recognized scientists and medics such as J.

Confusion, moreover, had begun to be reified in the public domain: When Zuckerman investigated the rationale for this instruction his fears were confirmed: Against this undisciplined blast literature, and the broader public disquiet that it encouraged, Zuckerman positioned his laboratory as a sword of truth. He made his target clear in his first report to the Ministry of Home Security, explicitly situating his nascent research programme as a response to generalized anxiety:.

It will be remembered that the main point of medical interest in the problem of blast is the knowledge that men are sometimes found dead within the effective zone of an explosion without apparent wounds, and only showing bloodstained fluid trickling from the mouth or nose.

This is a view generally put, without evidence, in the clinical literature. The first step in redressing this situation was to resort to the disciplined space of the lab. To render blast more legible, Zuckerman first sought to establish a base-line for human and animal tolerance. This work initially contained a psychological component: Recalling the primary purpose of the experiments — to explain and thus conceptually and operationally contain occult deaths — he noted that previous commentators had focused on the brain and the lungs as the two bodily zones most implicated in the phenomenon.

Post-mortem evidence supported these findings: The key to unravelling the mysteries of blast, these findings suggested, lay not in shattered nerves, but in traumatized lungs. Post-mortem attention to lungs, moreover, yielded a further significant result — lesions were found exclusively on the side of the animal that had faced the explosion.

If suction or distension were the cause of trauma, Zuckerman reasoned, these would act on the entire respiratory tree, and thereby damage both lungs. To secure this reading of blast injury, however, Zuckerman had to move out from the laboratory and back into the chaos of the bomb site. Making a success of this confirmatory stage, however, presumed a reliable flow of clinical and post-mortem information, and to secure this a circular, written on his behalf by the Emergency Medical Service director Francis Fraser, was sent to EMS hospital officers in June which focused attention on occult blast victims:.

People are sometimes picked up dead within the effective zone of an explosion without any external signs of injury, and showing only bloodstained fluid in the mouth and nose. Within a few months Zuckerman was complaining that the field was not providing adequate information, and began recommending measures for the better collection of data. In correspondence with hospital practitioners eager to supply him with cases of blast, moreover, Zuckerman was often less than fulsome in his thanks, disputing their diagnoses which for him did not achieve the precision required for proper scientific knowledge.

A long-standing and at times tense correspondence with G. This exchange reached a wider audience when Osborn published accounts of blast cases in the British Medical Journal in Osborn, a. It was only those in his view rare cases in which these forms of violence were absent, Zuckerman insisted, that merited consideration as blast Zuckerman, a: First, it enabled the collection of raw data from the field on bomb casualties in a reliable, standardized form.

Second, it brought interpretive order to the bomb site by short-circuiting the anecdotalism that had till then hampered scientific understanding. This was to be accomplished by the deployment of a series of analytical devices, including following the suggestion of the noted medical statistician Austin Bradford Hill the use of random sampling techniques that explicitly rejected unsystematic and subjective criteria.

The physical and emotive complexities of a recent bomb site were further rendered analytically manageable by recourse to statistical abstraction: Through these instruments, Zuckerman sought to contain blast, as a patho-physiological problem and as a source of dangerous public anxiety. Within the space of a year he felt confident enough to declare victory on the first of these fronts.

In a letter to the Nobel Prize-winning physiologist Edgar Adrian he reported that his experimental conclusions about the significance of lung damage had been confirmed in the field. Zuckerman had thus laid the spectre of shell shock to rest: In August , Zuckerman turned his attention explicitly to the question of mental effects in humans of exposure to air raids. People cannot endure the terrific percussion; they lose voluntary control and run hither and thither, aimlessly, fatuously, and it is some time before they become at all collected.

Drawing on impressions gathered from Spain, he also noted the subjective dimension of raid panic, its lack of containment by any rational evaluative standard of danger: In a much-cited contribution to the Lancet , Rickman argued that this neurotic element needed to be combated with risk-based public instruction: Such discussions about psychological ARP, again, were significantly framed by the legacy of shell shock.

As Ben Shephard and others have noted, the problem of compensatable civilian neurosis was a clear concern for pension officials in the lead-up to war Shephard, ; Jones, Palmer and Wessely, This policy was explained to practitioners in a circular issued following the passage of the Act: Mere proximity to a blast explosion, ministry officials insisted, was insufficient to admit casualties to the scheme.

The Act proved contentious, and in the first year of bombing several parliamentary questions were raised demanding explanations for refused compensation cases. At this point in the course of the war there was a live debate about the purposes and powers of the RAF: Trenchard grounded his argument in an attention-grabbing statistical ratio: This memo starts with a section outlining the purposes of such a survey: His quest for a framework for generating firm empirical data on the state of the civilian mind was driven by a second, strategic imperative — the need to by-pass potentially powerful opposition from the Ministry of Pensions.

It was vital to circumvent ministry suspicion, Zuckerman argued, not merely in the interest of home security, but to capitalize on a unique set of experimental conditions: It was to his already established Casualty Survey that Zuckerman turned to ensure the requisite investigative discipline: Several interesting themes were developed in subsequent documents. The results have been of great value in the evaluation of shelter policy. It was these raids that Zuckerman selected for investigation.

On the advice of the influential Maudsley psychiatrist Aubrey Lewis, Zuckerman appointed Russell Fraser, a New Zealander working under Lewis at the Mill Hill Emergency Hospital, to serve alongside his existing casualty surveyors as psychiatric adviser. Dock workers were the principal investigative target, approximately of whom were selected — following the methods of the Casualty Survey — on a random sample basis for interview between November and January Fraser appears to have accepted his subordinate role, and in consultation with Zuckerman he devised a means of determining the existence of raid-induced neurosis that depended primarily on tangible behavioural indices.

Drawing on his experience at Mill Hill, Fraser proposed in a letter to Zuckerman a predominantly behaviouralist measure of neurosis. As raids took place in the night, those who manifested abnormal levels of anxiety during the day could be classed as neurotic. Excessive anxiety is graded according to various points: Fraser to Zuckerman, This enabled classification that by-passed subjective accounts of internal states:. Individuals were not asked to describe the degree of their fear; but rather to describe symptoms which it was implied that everyone felt; and the impression was given that differences were expected to indicate features of their physical constitution.

By this procedure it is felt that reliable answers were usually obtained. At face value, the gathering of stories from hundreds of vulnerable adolescents suggests a relaxation of his injunction against interiority, an invitation to engage in realms of fantasy. Nor were they to be read in search of emotional insight. Instead, Zuckerman, along with Bradford Hill, prepared numerous drafts of a reading key that would facilitate the identification and recording of more prosaic information. In the final version of this document, readers were presented with a form see Figure 5 containing some 50 columns, in which they were to record, with reference to a prepared numerical key, instances in which the essays made reference to specific features of raid experience.

The emphasis on objective, external behavioural indices as opposed to anecdote and interior sensibility was confirmed by the technology designed for processing the essays.

United Kingdom home front during World War II

Fragmenting individuated stories as discrete numerical values tabulated on code cards would ensure their containment as a collective synthesis of common behaviour, rather than a record of singular affect Hull School Essay series, It is not as a study of neurosis that the Hull survey made its biggest impact. As Zuckerman acknowledged at the time of its design and implementation, and as the correspondence and draft reports confirm, it was something of a rush job, as the participants struggled to establish settled investigative parameters and to fix the human and material variables into a workable experimental model.

Nevertheless, in his final report on the combined results of the Hull and Birmingham survey, co-authored by Bernal, Zuckerman was clear in his overall assessment of the lesson to be drawn from the survey. Among the summary of conclusions listed at the front of the document is the following emphatic statement: In neither town was there any evidence of panic resulting either from a series of raids or from a single raid.

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