The Spirit of Qualitative Research Lecture Ten: Our Lady of Chinatown

Methodology

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I found it difficult to formulate the final criterion regarding the origin of authors. Immigrant literature could be defined as not only about immigrants, but also by immigrants or writers of the same race as the protagonists. Yet, experience of oppression is not homogenous among various minority groups. With a unique historical background, each group faces different challenges.

It is most appropriate for my study if the authors originated from the same ethnic group as the fictional characters they create. In this way, the authors are not only familiar with the migration experience, but have also created part of that experience. As such, I searched for works written by Chinese-North American writers immigrants and their close descendants and ended up with a shortlist of titles from which I selected my primary texts. They range from stories about building the Central Pacific Railroad in California to contemporary novels that deal with daily life events.

From the list, I chose two historical and two contemporary novels as subjects of examination to contrast how issues are addressed in different time periods. The richness of the text, recognition of the author through positive reception in reviews and awards, and my personal preference also determined my selection. These four books emphasize parent-child relationships and are written by recognized Chinese- North American authors. Fourteen- year-old immigrant Bing has a love-hate relationship with his father, who is not only a gambler but a bone collector who digs bones of Chinese immigrants and ships them back to China.

A skull is found to be missing and Ba develops a severe, strange fever. Apart from the discrimination and prejudice imposed upon her, Joan struggles with the generational and cultural clashes with her non-English speaking, traditional-minded parents. Joan acts as a translator for her parents, which results in blurred and somewhat inverted parent-child roles.

As Joan journeys to maturity, her mother also becomes increasingly open to unfamiliar customs. Intertwined with the main plot is the folktale of the Star Fisher, a magical kingfisher bird that is forced to stay on earth after her marriage with a farmer. The Star Fisher was a Christopher Award winner in His knowledge of immigrant culture and his experience of alienation as an American-born second- generation Chinese American allow him a suitable storyteller for The Star Fisher, a story based on the life of his mother Donald Duk, by Frank Chin, is about a young boy who despises everything Chinese in his life—Chinese New Year, his comical name, and his father King Duk, who appears to appreciate Chinese culture as much as Donald detests it.

This year-old Chinese-American disregards his Chinese identity until he starts having strange dreams in which he identifies as one 10 of the Central Pacific Railroad builders in California. Donald Duk appears as required reading in a number of college courses and has sold over 45, copies Feldman n. He is an influential novelist, playwright, and critic of Asian-American literature.

In the family, Mary is most eager to adopt American customs. She keeps a list of English slang, works hard to befriend her popular American classmates, and cannot stand her family members, who, in her opinion, are so obnoxiously ignorant about American culture that they keep embarrassing themselves and her in public. It takes numerous cultural misunderstandings, raising a kitten in secret, and sacrificing a dream for Mary—or Ying-mei—to realize that it is possible to gain respect from others even if her family is different.

Namioka was born in Beijing, China, and immigrated to America when she was nine-year-old. She later married a Japanese-American and is known for her multicultural books on both the Chinese-American and Japanese-American immigrant experience Something about the Author Rudmin , a term that is used in this study. Major Confucian themes include humanism, loyalty, etiquette, and filial piety. Goldin observes, filial piety is not limited to Confucianism, but is present in many religious and ethnic traditions For the purposes of my study, I focus on filial piety as defined in the Confucian treatise Classic of Filial Piety.

First-generations include both permanent and non-permanent residents such as those who are living on Work or Study Permits. They are descendants of second- generations.

Immigrant writers In my study, immigrant writers include first-generation newcomers as well as their descendants within two generations. I believe that second- and third-generations are close enough to the immigrants to present a meaningful and authentic portrayal of the immigrant experience. Although he is better known as Confucius, I refer to him as Master Kong to avoid confusion with the school of Confucianism.

In Chapter Three, I introduce my theoretical frameworks, Critical Race Theory and acculturation, as well as my methodology, a combination of qualitative content analysis and close reading. Chapters Four comprises my findings on filial piety in a thematic structure to facilitate comparison across texts. In Chapter Six, I address the conclusions drawn from my research and discuss the contribution and limitations of my research study while offering suggestions for further research.

Literature Review Introduction China is one of the leading countries of origin among immigrants to Canada and the United States. As ethnic minority members, the Chinese-North Americans face the dilemma of positioning their heritage values within those of the host countries. Children, in particular, struggle with cultural clashes because they often serve as the front line of cultural adjustment for the family Crocco It transitions from literary analysis to explore Chinese family values in classic Chinese treatises.

Shifting to the field of Sociology, the literature review outlines existing findings on parent-child conflicts and the preservation of family values within Chinese-North American families. Information on immigrant writing, family values, as well as the challenges of immigrant families, provides both the background and the rationale for my research. According to Donna Norton and Saundra E. Norton, the authors of Through the Eyes of a Child: Ronald Jobe, whose argument aligns with that of Norton and Norton, discusses in Cultural Connections: Yet, Jobe expresses concern about the accuracy of the cultural elements in multicultural stories.

After all, literature is a major source from which young people develop their sense of cultural sensitivity Hunt questions whether the authors have deliberately selected the aspects that they appreciate in a culture while ignoring those that make them uncomfortable. The question, therefore, is not whether children should read multicultural books, but which books are most authentic. In sum, multicultural stories with credible depiction of culture are generally recommended by scholars. In the introduction to Voices of the Other: McGillis also addresses the concept of neo-colonialism along with diasporic writings, both of which are related to my study of immigrant fiction.

McGillis provides a definition of a critical post-colonial lens and introduces concepts that are applicable to immigrant literature. He claims that post-colonial concepts of hybridization and orientalism can be used to deconstruct racial discourse and binaries in works of literature, including diasporic texts written by minorities such as immigrants and refugees Bhabha, Bradford presents a comparative study of settler-society 1 literature published in various countries in Unsettling Narratives: She identifies the use of counter-discourse in texts and claims that they subvert dominant power by refuting discourses that are recognized as the normal or default model For example, Bradford suggests that the picture book A Coyote Columbus Story by Thomas King and William Kent Monkman provides an alternate outlook on imperialism through the portrayal of Columbus as a sinister intruder instead of a heroic figure Perry Nodelman and Mavis Reimer recommend that children should read books that reveal hybridization The post-colonial term hybridity is defined as the two-way influence between colonizers and colonized as set out in Homi K.

As discussed by scholars such as McGillis, Bradford, and Guerin, post-colonialism is an appropriate theoretical lens to bring to multicultural books for young readers, including those that include neo- colonialism or the experience of diaspora. Meanwhile, Arlette Willis brings her experience as an African-American female to the literary analysis of multicultural texts. To empower children of all ethnicities, Willis encourages the use of novels that offer alternative viewpoints Meanwhile, some critics study the novels through a post-colonial framework in order to challenge traditional notions of a multi-cultural society, and others apply their teaching experience and cultural background to support the analyses of books that provide a voice to minority groups.

Asian-North American Immigrant Writing The genre of immigrant literature, which typically centres on the experience of living in a new country, has grown substantially in the North American publishing industry in recent decades because of the large immigrant population as well as the rise of immigrant writers. Moreover, reading immigrant literature provides an opportunity for non-immigrant children to learn more about integrating with new cultures Immigrant literature is beneficial not only to readers, but also to immigrant writers who view storytelling as a cathartic experience.

Chinese-American author Laurence Yep explains how writing a story is similar to solving a puzzle: Equally insightful is that Bette Bao Lord, a Chinese-American author, views her stories as a way to celebrate the uniqueness of her bicultural identity: We can choose the best of both [worlds]" qtd. In response 20 to the expanding immigrant population, books about immigrant experience serve an important role in preparing both the reader and the author to deal with challenges in the real world. Asian-North American immigrant literature has attracted much attention in the academic field.

In his introductory essay to Aiiieeeee: Kim discusses racial discrimination reflected in the genre of Asian-American books, identifies the roles played by immigrant writers, and includes interviews with several Asian-American writers. By overlooking the unique historical background and immigrant experience of each ethnic group, Chin and Kim fall into the trap of generalizing Asians groups as identified by Yokota.

Although Yokota claims that Asian-North American novels are discussed as a homogenous group, a number of recently published articles prove otherwise. In the second half, Cheung provides broad 21 comparative studies on diaspora, post-colonialism, and masculinity in Asian-American Literature. Chao presents recurring themes and tropes as well as the social construction of Chinese history and culture in a selection of Chinese-Canadian novels.

Her critical examination is a milestone in Canadian literary studies because it recognizes the importance of Chinese-Canadian stories and lays the foundation for future studies. The growth of literary analysis on specific Asian ethnic groups reflects the recognition of Asian-North American immigrant literature. Dolores de Manuel and Rocio G.

Grace Ko and Pamela J. Kim divides 22 the texts under categories such as autobiographies, immigration stories, and stories about railway workers. She summarizes each example and concludes with the hope to see more Chinese- Canadian books in the future. Cai points out that while stereotypes are less frequent in recent Chinese-American publications, several inauthentic visual symbols still persist e.

Commenting on the high proportion of folktales among existing picture books about China, Cai calls for more contemporary realistic stories, which tend to promote cultural understanding in a positive manner. In the following paragraphs, I will discuss selected critical writing about the four authors of my primary texts— Frank Chin, Lensey Namioka, Laurence Yep, and Paul Yee.

Apart from Goldstein- Shirley and Richardson, other scholars examine the use of food e. Often, her Asian-Americans characters lose their national identities as they are categorized as a homogenous group by others. In addition, Melinda L. Paul Yee on His Historical Fiction.

The adoption of culturally specific values such as filial piety in a new society draws little attention from literary scholars. A discussion of the interplay between heritage family values, acculturation, and family dynamics in immigrant fiction, specifically written for children, remains a gap in the corpus of Asian-North American literary analysis. Chinese Family Values As family is considered the pillar of the Chinese society, many traditional Chinese teachings focus on values and expectations in regards to familial relations.

Among the values, filial piety is the most prominent element. Goldin, in the book Confucianism, states that filial behaviour is encouraged in most Chinese ethnic traditions It is most thoroughly discussed in Classic of Filial Piety, a treatise from Confucianism, a regnant Chinese philosophical system originated by Master Kong also known as Confucius. Its influence and broad readership make it the most recognized book about filial values in China.

To fulfill filial responsibilities, he urges one to serve his or her parents with utmost love and respect while bringing glory and renown to the family. His teaching is based on the argument that children have the obligation to repay parents for giving birth to them, nurturing them, and raising them. At the same time, Master Kong recognizes the parental right to discipline their children. Guo includes 24 short stories, each featuring a hero who is subjected to a severe test of filial piety, such as sacrificing his or her health for the benefits of the parents.

They suggest that in the stories, filial piety stems from guilt. The protagonists feel as if they can never do enough to redeem their debt to their parents for bringing them into the world. Not only do all the protagonists succeed in their quests, but their intrinsic moral perfection, as seen from their filial behaviour, moves the emperor or the gods to bestow great rewards on them. Holzman reasons that such extreme action is best explained by the idea that filial piety is seen as an absolute value in China.

He argues that by praising characters that act altruistically towards their parents, Book of the Later Han encourages and promotes similar behaviour among Chinese readers. Confucian filial belief, as demonstrated in examples of classic treatises and interpretations of these texts, is experienced as a core family value in China. A number of studies have been conducted to determine whether traditional teachings on filial piety still hold the same degree of influence in modern China. They feel least obligated to act obediently. Fuligni and Wen-xin Zhang have conducted a study on family obligation among contemporary Chinese adolescents.

Both urban and rural participants in China reported a substantially stronger sense of family obligations when compared to American participants Other scholars provide useful tools to measure the degree in which an individual endorses filial beliefs.

In the academy, there are various interpretations of the expected roles of Chinese parents. Western scholars such as Diana Baumrind, and Laurence Steinberg, et al. Chao suggests that Baumrind misunderstands the implications of two Chinese parenting terms: She comments how Chinese parents view training as rigorous educating or inculcating of children to ensure harmony and integrity of the family unit With differing expectations for the parent-child relationship in China and the West, it is understandable that immigrant families in North America are likely to experience intergenerational conflicts.

Challenges in Chinese-North American Families One of the major challenges faced by immigrants in their host countries is intergenerational conflict. He observes that children often lack meaningful connections to their heritage and tend to evaluate themselves according to the standards of the new country Zhou claims that, in most cases, children are eager to 29 acculturate in order to fit in while parents prefer retaining traditional family life In other words, parents cannot match the rapid rate of acculturation among children. Different acculturative responses—assimilation, separation, integration, or marginalization—not only extend the generation gap, but also evoke fear in parents that their children will forget about their roots In addition, Zhou explores the impact of foreign language acquisition on the parent-child relationship.

He argues that when children act as interpreters for their Chinese parents, role reversal occurs and undermines parental authority. As Zhou points out, the immigrant experience influences family dynamics and disrupts normal parent-child relationships in various ways.

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This suggests the possibility that the emphasis on heritage family values in immigrant families may be changing as well. Numerous sociological studies on Chinese-North American families have provided insight into existing family values among immigrant parents. Some express disappointment when their children fail to fulfill filial responsibilities such as respecting elders and honouring the family Gorman Parents also demonstrate a strong emphasis on academic performance, viewing it as a ladder for a better life and family glory—the highest form of filial piety Hao and Bonstead-Bruns ; Goyette and Xie On the other hand, parents recognize the need to adjust their parenting style and expectations in response to North American society.

Results of the filial piety scale reveal that most parents embrace the virtue of filial piety Lieber, Nihira, and Mink Meanwhile, the qualitative data provide consistent parental perspectives on acculturation. While parents feel uncertain about their expectations regarding filial behaviour from their second-generation children, they try to modify Confucian practice of obedience and respect to adapt to American culture , Despite a strong personal tie with Chinese family values, Chinese-North American parents try to adjust the conceptualization of filial piety in the new society.

Although filial piety is deeply rooted among immigrant parents, the degree of endorsement of Confucian values varies among immigrant children.

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Some child participants feel torn and confused when negotiating different expectations of their heritage norms and the Canadian norms. She argues that it is impossible to resist any influence from her non-Chinese peers in daily life. A number of participants, however, experience no cultural conflicts because they remain mostly unassimilated into the Canadian culture and share similar expectations with their Chinese parents.

One boy demonstrates strong filial beliefs in his altruistic response: His wish is parallel to that encouraged in Chinese treatises such as Book of the Later Han. Li reveals the mixed views on Chinese family values among immigrant children. He interviewed seven immigrant families in and , and 12 adolescents in , respectively.

Yu conducted a large-scale quantitative study exploring filial behaviours and beliefs among Chinese-Americans. Older respondents score lower on the filial scale than the younger groups. Data reveals that regardless of the age, American born respondents score low in filial obligations compared to the immigrants and are not prepared to accommodate their aged parents Yu proposes that acculturation gaps between immigrant parents and their children lead to conflict and stress between generations.

As such, evaluation and analyses of immigrant fiction are essential in order to move the genre forward. As such, my thesis is unique in its focus on the interaction between filial piety and acculturation in relation to the parent-child relationship as represented literary works. As seen in the Chinese classics and sociological studies, filial piety is regarded as a core family value in Chinese families both in the past and the present. This discrepancy may widen the generation gap, leading to intensified intergenerational conflicts in immigrant families.

Such research is significant in determining the influence of literature on children, who rely on multicultural stories to develop their own cultural identity. In relation to intergenerational conflict, I document the representation of filial piety and acculturative strategies in a selection of Chinese-North American immigrant texts. Theoretical Framework and Methodology Theoretical Framework In my construction of a theoretical framework, I draw on the cultural and psychological concept of acculturation while also referring to Critical Race Theory.

I begin by explaining the acculturative fourfold model and transition to discussing the notions of counterstorytelling and voice-of-colour in Critical Race Theory. Sam and John W. They argue that, in comparison to assimilation, acculturation is a more generic term which acknowledges the reciprocity through which cultural groups influence each other.

His paradigm is referred to as the fourfold model by scholars such 34 as Floyd W. Critical Race Theory CRT , particularly the concepts of counterstorytelling and voice-of-colour, plays an important role in my research. Brooks states that CRT comprises various race-based theories and values that question legal traditions Arguing on the principle that people of colour are adversely affected by their race, CRT seeks to achieve racial equality by deconstructing aspects of legal order that disregard minority group members Rather than addressing issues related to cultural transition at the level of the individual, CRT focuses on racism and its influence on minority members.

An Introduction that CRT has spread beyond the field of legal studies into areas such as education, ethnic studies, and American studies 3. Gloria Ladson-Billings and William F. Firstly, CRT encourages counterstories, which authenticate the lives of minority groups by exploring the enduring influence of racism Secondly, it positions racism as the centre of literary analysis, especially for historical novels.

Finally, CRT is a contemporary framework that acknowledges the past-present racial linkages. McNair also mentions the notion of counterstorytelling that subverts dominant constructions of social reality. She states that ultimately, both literature and CRT are committed to re-envisioning and changing the status quo of the social order Solorzano and Tara J. The group is not limited only to those who experience racial discrimination, but may also refer to minorities such as the poor or homosexuals. Counterstories can appear in the forms of stories, parables, chronicles, or narratives For instance, Black slaves have written stories about their pain and oppression through songs, letters, and verses Delgado points out that counterstorytelling ultimately seeks to reallocate power by challenging the status quo and deconstructing conventional prejudice Counterstories are broadly defined and may appear in different formats including immigrant literature, which focuses on the experience of a group that is still seeking a place in the mainstream society.

In a similar way that counterstorytelling is therapeutic to minority group members, novel-writing is a cathartic experience for immigrant authors.

In Critical Race Theory: An Introduction, Delgado and Stefancic state that writers of colour, with their historical background and experiences with oppression, can communicate matters that the whites are unlikely to address with the same authenticity 9. Although immigrant literature written by non-native writers should also be acknowledged for they may be less prone to present a biased viewpoint , many respected critics support the argument of voice-of-colour. Perry Nodelman and Mavis Reimer also claim that books by native writers have a greater likelihood of an authentic representation of minority groups To keep my research focused, I include works by immigrant writers.

The concept of acculturation forms the foundation of my research while providing a critical framework for my content analysis. I also draw on the notions of voice-of- colour and counterstorytelling from CRT to shape the theoretical lens through which I analyze my texts. In addition, I employ post-colonial terms as outlined in Literature Review to discuss my texts when appropriate.

While the Chinese-North Americans are not colonized, I believe post-colonial theory can be used to view immigrant literature, which is a form of neo-colonial or diasporic writings McGillis xxiv, xxvi. Methodology I interrogate my primary texts using a combination of qualitative content analysis, a minimal amount of descriptive quantitative content analysis, and close reading.

Content analysis aims to minimize personal bias by recording information using a coding system with well-defined parameters. Ideally, a reliable system should produce consistent results regardless of the researcher. An Introduction to Its Methodology, Klaus Krippendorff claims that this methodology can be applied to the humanities field which essentially involves symbols and messages as well as their functions and effects 9.

In other words, specific themes in a book can be regarded as codes in content analysis. Specifically for this research study, content analysis provides an orderly system to record elements of filial piety as well as the acculturation strategies employed by characters.

I approached my texts using a qualitative content analysis to document how characters view their heritage values in the host country. Compared to a quantitative approach, qualitative content analysis offers an inductive tool that can be applied to this research. Hsiu-Fang Hsieh and Sarah E. To ensure an objective yet flexible study, I adopted a qualitative content analysis approach to provide rich data about how people interpret the world. The procedure of the study is as followed: First, I designed two coding schemes in response to my research questions based on existing scholarly resources and theoretical frameworks.

The first scheme focuses on filial piety while the second one centres on 39 acculturation strategies. Each scheme includes a coding manual which explains the indicators to be identified, and a coding table for documentation. Details of the schemes can be found in the next section. Second, I examined each primary text for any indicators of the schemes and recorded the findings in Appendices B and C, giving specific examples in note forms or in quotations.

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To facilitate comparison between texts, I also employed descriptive content analysis to note the frequency in which indicators appear in the texts in Tables 4. Third, I employed a close reading of the primary texts based on the findings in the tables. The combination of modified qualitative content analysis and close reading offers a reliable framework to develop an understanding of the depiction of family values and acculturation strategies in Chinese-North American immigrant novels. These two approaches complement each other and allow me the flexibility necessary to record and interpret concepts that are difficult to quantify.

Content Analysis Coding Scheme The coding scheme addressing my research question on filial piety is developed from Classic of Filial Piety and two filial piety scales. Classic of Filial Piety, published in approximately BC, records the conversation between Master Kong the founder of Confucianism and his students.

Both scales include 22 to 25 items, each of which is a statement e. Participants of the two research studies were required to rate themselves on the items on a 6-point scale. A higher total score in the scale reflects a stronger reported level of filial piety for an individual. Some items are scored in the opposite direction. For the purposes of my research, I derived four major codes from the items of the scales as well as quotations from Classic of Filial Piety. The coding scheme is as follows: The supporting and opposing examples for each code are listed in the table.

The examples are briefly described with the inclusion of direct quotes when appropriate. The codes are explained below with quotes from Classic of Filial Piety, items on the filial piety scales, and my elaboration with supporting citations. Therefore respect the father and the sons are happy. Sons and daughters may protest against being unreasonably scolded by their parents N 2. No matter how their parents conduct themselves, sons and daughters must respect them. Sons and daughters do not necessarily have to seek parental advice and may make their own decisions N.

As a son or daughter, one must obey one's parents no matter what. I obey my parents under all circumstances. I do what my parents want me to do. Respecting parents is a significant aspect of filial piety. Chen argues that formulating items in the reverse direction limits the impact of an acquiescence response set Spreading one's fame to glorify one's parents should not be the most important reason for getting ahead N. I strive for excellence in order not to disappoint my parents. One of the highest ends of filial piety is to honour the family name.

Success often takes the form of academic achievement as education has always been greatly emphasized in China. On the other hand, Master Kong says that disgracing the family is considered an immoral, severe offense that harms the whole society After children have grown up, all the money they earn through their own labor belongs to themselves, even though their parents are still living N. When my parents are tired, I help them with housework and cooking.

When I start to work, I contribute financially to my parents. As long as my parents are alive, I do not leave them to live overseas for a long period of time. Children should try their best to fulfill the material and mental needs of their parents. Self-Cultivation Classic of Filial Piety: The main reason for sons and daughters not to do dangerous things is to avoid getting their parents worried. I take care of my body in order not to worry my parents. To avoid my parents worrying about me, I never do dangerous things. A filial child is expected to take good care of his or her body because it is a gift from the parents.

By monitoring themselves in the correct way, the child keeps the parents from worrying. In order to explore my second research question regarding acculturation strategies, I developed a coding scheme on the basis of John W. The table is as follows: Acculturation Strategies Acculturation Strategies Protagonist Parents 1 Assimilation 2 Separation 3 Integration 4 Marginalization I noted any thoughts, behaviours, or dialogues that reflect the acculturation strategies of the protagonists and their parents.

I also looked for possible shifts from one strategy to another. Separation occurs when individuals preserve their culture of origin and avoid contact with the new culture. Integration is employed when individuals retain their native culture while immersing in other cultures. Marginalization occurs when individuals maintain neither their root culture nor the dominant host culture.

For example, individuals employing the strategy of assimilation often view the foreign culture as superior to the heritage culture, and others who integrate perceive both cultures in a positive light. Conclusion Through the theoretical frameworks of acculturation and Critical Race Theory, I investigate the representation of filial piety and the depiction of the relationship between family values and acculturation in my primary texts. Acculturation is a significant component in my research as it forms the basis of my research question about the effect of acculturation strategies on family values.

Next, I apply the CRT notion of voice-of- colour to my selection of primary texts as well as the discussion of counterstorytelling to illustrate the importance of immigrant literature. I interrogate my texts using a combination of qualitative content analysis and close reading. Content analysis provides me a systematic format to document observable manifestations of family values and acculturation strategies.

The coding systems are developed according to John W. The data gathered are recorded in table formats in the appendices. Next, I draw from the data collected to present a close reading of my novels. As such, I hope my research can build on the examination of Chinese- North American immigrant literature and provide additional awareness of the authenticity and comprehensiveness of existing texts.

Tables in Appendix B summarize examples of the indicators, documenting the presence both positive and negative of filial piety, or equally its absence. Each table focuses on one primary text. The indicators were applied to a close reading of the four primary texts in order to identify and analyze different aspects of filial piety. Introduction The integration of Chinese immigrants into North American society often entails the re-establishment and modification of heritage culture and virtues such as filial piety.

In Confucianism, Paul R. He claims that filial piety is considered the cornerstone of moral training and virtuous government in Chinese culture. These elements, as explained in the 47 methodology chapter, are the basis of Coding Scheme 1 for the examination of indicators of filial piety in the primary texts. The parent-child relationship is a major theme of all four primary texts. The first book surrounds the American-born Donald, who despises anything Chinese—including his father, a famous chef and opera performer. Examination of these parent-child relationships will be conducted in this chapter to explore the roles of filial piety in Chinese-North American immigrant literature.

This chapter presents the positive and negative evidence of filial piety under the categories of the four indicators. Full details of the indicators are documented in Tables in Appendix B in note forms or in quotations. It is important to note that the descriptive quantitative data may not reveal the full picture of filial piety in the novels.

Higher occurrence of indicators does not necessarily imply a stronger endorsement of filial piety.

Thus, the analysis is mainly based on the qualitative 48 data in Appendix B, with the quantitative data in Table 4. Manifestations of respect can be measured in several ways. Indeed, they are expected to obey their parents unquestioningly Ho ; Chen, Bond, and Tang More importantly, Kong insists that even when disagreement is inevitable for moral reasons, children should still address their parents in a gentle and respectful manner.

This mentality is reflected in the filial piety scales, where a respectful attitude towards parents should be maintained at all 49 times Ho ; Chen, Bond, and Tang As shown in Table 4. First, Bing is conscious of his filial duty to be respectful and obedient to his father. He dares not betray his fear of ghosts out of concern that that he will be considered disrespectful.

Yet, Bing is rebellious mainly in his thoughts.

In this case, his fear of the ghost overcomes his resolution to treat his father with regard. Although both characters recognize the filial obligation to be respectful, their relationship shifts from one-sided to mutually respectful by the end of the story. It is only then that Bing deliberately voices his dissatisfaction: So show your son proper respect! When Joan disobeys, her mother accuses her of being worse than a dog Joan refuses to consent to what she perceives as unreasonable commands from her mother.

You treat me like. As well, Joan is irritated when her mother expects absolute reverence and submission from her without appreciating her efforts. The discrepancy in values between the two characters creates friction, misunderstanding, and disappointment in the parent-child relationship. On the surface, Donald is more indifferent than respectful towards his parents. In fact, Donald asks himself: Upon first examination, Donald seems to go against the Confucian teaching to respect his parents in his attempts to separate himself from them.

A good example of this occurs in the novel when his father provides insight on the role of the Chinese during the construction of the Central Pacific Railroad in Following this interaction, Donald comes to have greater appreciation and respect for his father. Moreover, Donald is mostly obedient, which is one of the core elements in respect. As Donald never feels guilty for challenging his parents in this disrespectful manner, it is possible that the positive examples he demonstrated are not deliberate attempts to be filial.

While Donald exhibits ambiguous feelings about the value of respect, the fact that his parents never criticize his disrespectful attitude suggests that the obligation to regard parents is not greatly emphasized in this family. In general, Mary maintains a comfortable relationship with her parents and does not feel particularly obligated to comply with their wishes as does Joan in The Star Fisher.

There are also a number of occasions when Mary disobeys her parents. For example, she hides a kitten in the basement even though she knows that her parents will disapprove Additionally, she lies to her mother about the missing milk that she feeds the kitten Instead of feeling guilty or ashamed of her falsehood, Mary is more anxious to please her classmate Holly by adopting the kitten.

Nonetheless, 54 Mary recognizes her prejudice towards her family by the end of the novel and understands their restrictions in learning American customs. Even though she has not reached the level of reverence for her parents, Mary learns to appreciate her imperfect family. Respect is reflected not only in the form of outward obedience, but the attitudes and thoughts the protagonists harbour towards their parents. As neither Donald nor Mary feel burdened to be respectful, it is likely that their parents do not stress this filial virtue. Furthermore, the social contexts of the stories may affect the preservation of heritage values in immigrant families.

Through the portrayal of respect, the authors demonstrate ambivalent attitudes towards this aspect of filial piety. Nonetheless, the spirit of respect retains a position in the Chinese-North American immigrant families as portrayed in the texts. In fact, attaining achievement is a filial act because it honours and spreads the family name.

Thus, appropriately devoted children should keep their parents in mind when striving for excellence Ho According to Table 4. Bing protects the reputation of his father by presenting a favourable image of himself in the Chinese community. He pretends not to believe in ghosts 44 and forges the courage to work in the haunted house This incident demonstrates the importance of honouring the family name in the perception of Bing as a dutiful son. Joan and her mother in The Star Fisher view protecting the reputation of the family as one of the responsibilities of children.

They believe that children should conduct themselves in a way that the family name will not be disgraced. Joan is more determined to protect the family name than her younger sister Emily, who chews her sandwich with loud crunching noises 62 and scavenges food from her new friends As such, Joan may feel that she has a greater responsibility to protect the family name. When no one bids on her pie, she nudges her husband to buy the pie to avoid humiliation for the family The virtue of honouring the family name is subverted in the contemporary texts, Donald Duk and Yang the Third and Her Impossible Family.

The negative examples in Appendix B, Tables 3 and 4 show that this filial element is reversed in the parent-child relationship. Instead of pleasing their parents, Donald and Mary constantly wish that their parents can behave better in front of their peers. Donald feels ashamed when his mother cannot understand Mrs. She is extremely embarrassed when her mother exhibits manners that she feels are culturally inappropriate in North American society.

McNair argues that CRT provides a lens to identify the misrepresentations about race that seems to reinforce white supremacy instead of refuting stereotypes 9. She is extremely eager to fit into the new cultural system. Because of her racism, Mary demonstrates a reversed filial attitude and hopes that her parents can change their Chinese ways—unconventional in the mainstream society— so as to secure friendships with her classmates.

In fact, Mary is less than grateful when her mother apologizes for letting her down While the filial value of glorifying parents remains instilled within the families of the two historical texts, it is subverted within those in the contemporary texts. Once again, the distinction may be caused by the social conditions of the stories. It is reasonable that immigrant families in earlier years maintained a stronger connection to their root culture and its values whereas families in more recent years are more open-minded to foreign cultures in the increasingly globalized world.

The Critical Race framework is appropriate 59 in the comparison of the historical and contemporary texts in this study. At the same time, she claims that CRT takes a contemporary approach by acknowledging past-present racial linkages 9. Despite the differences among the historical and contemporary novels, this aspect of filial piety remains mostly consistent within each novel.

In other words, the protagonists hold a similar stance to that of their parents. Bringing a contemporary outlook to this principle, Ho and Chen, Bond, and Tang claim that a filial child should support his or her parents financially, live close to them so as to take care of them, and assist them in daily chores Ho ; Chen, Bond, and Tang As recorded in Table 4.

Despite the contempt Bing feels for his father, his willingness to provide for his father exhibits his adherence to this Confucian obligation. Indeed, Bing overcomes two of his greatest fears in order to protect his father. Furthermore, Bing demonstrates filial attitude through his sense of duty to support his family financially.

His readiness to take on the responsibilities of his family reflects the deep-rooted filial belief in his mind. He feels obligated to take care of his seniors even though he is only fourteen years old. Another interesting observation is that Bing does not display positive examples of service until the second half of the story. In comparison, his father rarely reveals the belief that his son should serve him unconditionally.

I can take care of myself. Stay out of my affairs! Has he begun to deny old Chinese values and subscribe to new Western ones? By portraying a gap in the values held by the two characters in the filial aspect of service, Yee illustrates how disparity in values may hinder understanding and create disappointment in the father-son relationship.

Of the four primary texts, The Star Fisher contains the largest number of examples of service as represented by both Joan and her mother. She carries out domestic chores, acts as the translator for her parents 4, 27, , and takes up the role of a mother to her younger sister because their parents do not speak English 8, When fulfilling her duties, Joan displays mixed feelings about serving her parents.

She is frustrated that her parents fail to compliment or acknowledge her efforts in the way her 62 teachers do. While she perceives herself as lenient according to Chinese standards, she is aware that by American standards she is strict. As she points out to Joan: Its absence, however, can be considered in several ways.

Firstly, the lack of concrete filial examples reinforces the image of Donald, a foreign-born youth who is deeply assimilated into American culture and refuses to acknowledge his Chinese heritage. His experience shows the potential influence of the immigrant experience on young people, who are developing their sense of identities. This opens a possibility that Chinese immigrant parents do not necessarily impose pressure on their children to follow their 63 root culture in the new country.

As the child of an immigrant father and a fourth- generation Chinese-American mother, Chin may be aware of the different attitudes immigrant parents have towards Chinese values. Instead of performing concrete chores, Mary serves her parents in less tangible ways such as aiding their transition into the new environment and improving their reputations. Furthermore, in the face of criticism, Mary defends her family against Holly and her mother Mrs.

When you [Holly] picked up your viola for the first time, you probably played a few sour notes. Apart from the above few examples, Mary does not perform typical duties of a filial child such as providing financial support or shouldering domestic responsibilities. A straightforward explanation can be that immigrant parents in the earlier days were more concerned with this filial element and they passed it on to their children. However, one must also consider the situations of the four immigrant families portrayed in the novels.

It may be natural, therefore, for the young protagonists to step up and assist their parents. Without urgent financial needs, Donald and Mary may not feel as obligated to support their families as Bing and Joan do. The attitude adopted by the dominant society towards minorities greatly affects their environment and experience.

Thus, examining the filial value of service in the primary texts sheds light on the hardship and racial prejudice faced by Chinese immigrants in the early 20 th century. The purpose of Self-Cultivation is to prevent parents from worrying. As shown in the indicator of Self-Cultivation in Table 4. Indeed, the only positive example takes place in The Star Fisher. In this situation, Joan conceals her troubles at school from her mother in order to save her from worrying: Although Self-Cultivation is an imperative aspect of filial piety, it does not play a significant role in the primary texts.

Bing returns to the haunted house even after many others run away from the house for their own safety Disregarding his personal safety, he also steals a missing skull from the basement of the hospital to reunite it with its body in the graveyard Without any textual indications of their knowledge of this tenet, it is possible that they do not consciously oppose the concept of Self-Cultivation.

It may not occur to them that by exposing themselves to danger, they unintentionally disregard the importance their parents place on the value of Self-Cultivation. The value of Self-Cultivation is the element with the least evidence in these novels, despite the fact that it has priority as a core filial value according to Master Kong. While this absence of evidence pertaining to Self-Cultivation in the four novels might imply that the authors are unaware of the value, voice-of-colour suggests this might not be the case because writers of colour are likely to write with higher cultural authenticity Delgado and Stefancic 9.

This theory holds that minority authors create accurate portrayals of under-represented cultures because of their first-hand experience of racial oppression as well as their familiarity with the particular culture 9. Based on this proposition, the Chinese-North American authors of the primary texts are likely familiar with the spirit of Self-Cultivation in filial piety and offer authentic representations of cultural attitudes. Instead of concluding that Self-Cultivation is insignificant in the Chinese-North American community, one might conclude that Self-Cultivation is given a lower priority by the authors in the creation of the primary texts, which may not be able to cover every value in detail.

Summary Examining specific indicators of filial piety in the primary texts, it is possible to conclude that traditional Chinese family values are modified and adopted in different extents in the parent-child relationship of Chinese-North American immigrants. Historical characters such as Bing and Joan obey regardless of disrespectful thoughts, which mirrors the traditional filial belief that respect entails obedience Ho ; Chen, Bond, and Tang For Mary, obedience is not an essential demonstration of respect.

For instance, Joan and Donald, both second-generation Chinese-Americans, explicitly express their frustration to their parents while the other protagonists tend to keep insolent thoughts to themselves. Born in the United States, Donald and Joan would be more familiar with the western structure of an equal parent-child relationship. It is also possible that being American-born increases their acculturative stress that is channelled towards their parents. There is a disparity between the presence of the indicator of Glory to Family in the historical and contemporary texts.

In the historical texts, parents expect their children 68 to honour the family name. Conversely, the contemporary parents do not display such attitudes. Given the similar view of Glory to Family shared by the parents and child in each text, it can be assumed that the virtue of honouring the family name is passed on from parents to children, thereby suggesting the significance of parental influence even in a bicultural environment Evident in most texts except Donald Duk, the indicator of Serve and Provide for Parents is highly regarded in the primary texts.

Both Bing and Joan in the historical texts exhibit a strong sense of filial duty to serve their parents. Their awareness of the necessity to assist their parents is perhaps logical given the intense racial discrimination as well as limited economic opportunities in the early 20 th century. As such, an examination of traditional family values sheds light on the racial discrimination in Chinese-North American history.

In the traditional Chinese family hierarchy, males typically shoulder the financial burden whereas females take care of the household. The two historical novels 69 reflect this traditional hierarchy as Bing takes up an unpleasant job whereas Joan never considers employment outside the home. Nevertheless, Joan also acts as an interpreter for her parents in addition to domestic chores. As her filial duty is no longer confined to the domestic sphere, Joan is empowered by the immigration experience. While acknowledging the influence of gender on exhibitions of filial piety, the authors expand the role of a filial daughter beyond the boundaries of traditional Chinese family structure, which in turn suggests the development of a more equal gender status in Chinese-North American families.

The most prominent feature of the indicator of Self-Cultivation is its lack of evidence in the primary texts. Giving a lower priority to this particular indicator, the four immigrant writers appear to endorse only selected aspects of filial piety. According to the theory of voice-of-colour, minority writers are likely to provide an authentic view of their culture. Post the response actionsfor reporting threats or acts of terrorism. Call or the localsheriff if suspicious activities occur. Plan for public notification.

Practice response plans on a regular schedule. Develop local capacity to communicate with local health carefacilities. Freezer- longliners areowned and operated by Alaskans, Community Development Quota groups, andcompanies from Poliics State. The Alaska cod fishery and itssustainability are essential to all these groups. There are many fishery management success stories in Alaska--youwill hear some today. It touches on ecosystem management, how scienceis developed and used in our management process, how that process canwork in Alaska and elsewhere, and what lessons it may hold for MSAreauthorization and for the future.

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