Les relations publiques: « Que sais-je ? » n° 966 (French Edition)

Jean-François Flahaut

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The theater is quickly filling with very good and very nice people. To this end, an overview of the main milestones in the development of PR in the UK, Italy, France, Germany and Spain is provided in this paper; the first four countries are of particular interest because they were home to pioneering figures in the field across Europe and in related international movements; and Spain is of similar significance due to the specific political context in which PR emerged.

This overview is not intended to be exhaustive; the objective is to outline the origins and circumstances of PR in five key countries shaped by markedly different historical contexts. These synopses reflect the different ways in which PR commonly regarded as an emblematically American —that is, US— activity developed in different places.

A brief history of PR for each of the countries listed above may enable a clearer conclusion regarding whether or not there is a common European trend in the history of PR, and describe the comparative contexts of the development of PR that may, in turn, lead to the definition of the factors that condition the emergence of PR as a profession.

Until very recently, the prevalence of US-based and published monograph studies and research articles on the history of PR has required scholars to read such works as standard, and has framed PR as a profession from a similarly American perspective. However, such activities have been eclipsed within an historical record drafted primarily in terms of a US-American timeline.

Because of the US background that frames the field, precedent phenomena and practices in other countries that were described in different terms have been overlooked. However, this paper discloses how a renewed interest in the history of PR has arisen in European countries over the last twenty years, to compensate in part for the relative lack of historical study in this regard. The historiography of PR in Europe.

The purpose of the historical approach is to provide a clearer account of how PR as such emerged. This process of development discloses a range of responses to questions relating to the nature and structure of PR. He argues that the initial practice of PR in the US was seen as a defensive response to the criticism of big business articulated in investigative journalism at the turn of the twentieth century.

However, during the same time period, the emerging function of PR in Germany and Austria was primarily informative; it was not a defensive strategy. Nessmann presents evidence to show that specifically European —as opposed to US— roots may be traced in the history of PR.

He came up against two obstacles in his endeavor to draft such a history: Both of these difficulties may be attributed to the failure to offer a clear definition of the study of PR, a situation which has lasted down to the present day.

Lionel Chouchan

A new project was established in this context in the late s: The theoretical predominance of the US in the field prompted a debate in regarding the true origin of the concept of PR —that is, whether PR is a wholly Anglo-American phenomenon, or if there may be a European dimension to such practices outside the US. One of the final stages in the project involved an ethnographic analysis of PR in Europe, an exploration of its historical origins and specific characteristics, as well as of the possible interrelations in time and places between different national histories.

Europe makes history in the twenty-first century. The first, still relatively rare full-length national histories of PR in Europe began to appear in the late twentieth century, but such publications have only started to make their presence felt in the research bibliography over the last ten years. PR in Germany did not arise so as to resolve social clashes between big business and public opinion; rather, it was designed to meet the need to exchange information.

However, a number of scholars in the US did begin to acknowledge that the development of the field in Germany may have been unfairly ignored in the history of PR. They argued that the contribution from Germany be noted in the history of PR, despite the fact that the research literature tended to attribute the pioneering European activity in this regard to the UK.

Indeed, it seems as though a German company may have been the first business in Europe to establish a specialized PR department —in The article describes the historical development of PR in German-speaking countries such as Germany and Austria. Nessman takes a direct approach to the issue of the US origins of PR as an activity, citing the existence of similar activities as practiced in Europe at the end of the nineteenth century.

Thus, based on 67 oral interviews with pioneering figures in the field and documentation drawn from a number of relevant archives, her work provides a national perspective that is not dependent on the US-centered trend prevalent in the existing research literature. Based on the history of PR in the US, Miller and Dinan cite specific instances from the economic and political history of the UK as illustrative examples that enrich and broaden the historical narrative, all of which were imbricated in a democratic context.

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In recent times, UK scholars have renewed the focus on the study of history as a source of current and evolving knowledge of PR. A number of prestigious and pioneering historians in the field were in attendance. The conference was so successful that it is now organized as an annual event; and the Journal of Communication Management is committed to publishing articles about the history of PR on a regular basis. PR historiography must be embedded in a theoretical frame-work of social history, national histories, and world history.

New contributions to the history of PR from a US perspective. They argue that no aspect of the history of PR has been adequately explored. Refuting the argument presented by Miller herself in her book, they hold that twentieth-century historiography in this regard has not been shaped by a focus on the interests of large corporations. Their eighty-page monograph study presses strongly for further analysis extending back before and encompassing all countries and regions —not simply national and international lines of inquiry, but local analyses also, covering four areas in particular: They also call for further engagement with the five factors that seem to have fostered the emergence of PR as such: Hence, Lamme and Miller dispute the linear, progressive paradigm set out in the existing research literature.

These country-by-country overviews formulated in historical and chronological terms deal implicitly with the main forces driving the development of PR outside the US —in particular, democracy, the market economy and society. As discussed below, this group of administrative workers promoted professionalism in such activities and created a sense of public service through their work in information offices at local government bodies.

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At the beginning of the twentieth century, serious accusations of corruption and a lack of transparency were made against the highest levels of government in the UK by media outlets voicing public opinion and civil servants working at lower levels in the system hierarchy. The National Association for Local Government Officers NALGO was established in to safeguard the rights of civil servants to claim better pensions and salaries, as well as to ensure that they could rise through the ranks within the civil service through open promotion procedures.

In addition to improving the workplace and employment conditions of civil servants, NALGO also aimed to inform the public about the social role of government, which suffered from a poor reputation in general. Thus, the first leaders of NALGO saw that a press communications manager and an information committee would be required. The initiatives that fostered the significance and need for government communication services stemmed from articles published in the journal Public Administration , first published in , a publication produced by the recently established Institute of Public Administration Local government bodies were not alone in availing of these communications techniques.

Central government authorities were also conscious of the usefulness of PR strategies in dealing with politics and diplomatic relations with other countries, which were marked by the imposition of totalitarian regimes in Germany, Italy and Russia during the interwar period. The political success of such regimes prompted a debate concerning how the UK might address the emerging situation, by using propaganda to counteract the apparent threat of information broadcast from countries under totalitarian control.

Moreover, at the end World War I, the UK also faced other problems that had the potential to affect the established political order, such as the status of workers during and after the economic crisis and the implementation of mechanized means of industrial production, along with the rise of socialist movements. The successful operation of the Ministry of Information during World War I was called into question following the end of the conflict because its propaganda functions were no longer seen as wholly compatible with the conditions of a democratic country in times of peace. At the same time, however, another strong current of opinion held that insofar as it provided citizens with information about government authorities and educated the public about political and legislative developments, propaganda could play a key part in strengthening democratic structures.

The use of PR strategies was not confined solely to the public sector at that time. Albeit to a lesser extent, the private sector also contributed to the development of PR, insofar as it helped shape organizational structures, while likewise using PR for publicity purposes, as government authorities had done previously. The pioneering figures in the field were active as far back as the s: Apart from enforcing censorship, the prerogative of the Ministry also encompassed the coordination of propaganda at the war-front, in the UK itself, as well as in other countries that were not declared enemies of the state but that had remained apparently neutral.

By the end of World War II, the UK had invested heavily in propaganda operations, in both material and personnel terms. Such commitment may explain why the Ministry of Information was not dissolved at the end of the war; rather, its name was simply changed to the Central Office of Information COI , and agents selected by the government information service were appointed to work in the COI.

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Beginning in August , a number of prominent NALGO personnel inaugurated a series of meetings to set up an official body to award such professional recognition of PR work, which led to the establishment of the Institute of Public Relations IPR in Given that it has been closely linked to propaganda and political operations in the past, the first challenge faced by the IPR was to foster a positive reputation for themselves and PR as an activity.

Brebner wrote the first book about PR in the UK; Public Relations and Publicity was published by the Institute of Public Administration, and described PR as an administrative and management tool with a twofold objective: Social change in the UK prompted greater pluralism of values and behaviors in the s and s. This pluralism also had an impact on the economic situation.

PR strategies were used to promote these new values by communicating the ideas formulated by political parties, think tanks, business associations and civic opinion-makers, and to stimulate market activity. The rapid progress of pluralism, both civic and commercial, contributed to the development of PR in the s and s.

In short, this historical overview of the UK suggests a number of forces that shaped the development of PR over the course of the twentieth century. PR may be framed as an institutional response to two key interests: The impetus for improvements in local and central government authorities in the interwar period came from civil servants and other officials keen to garner professional status for their work and to define such activity as a public service to communities. This conception of PR, so innovative for its time, was recorded by such officials in the accounts they published in the institutional publication of the Institute of Public Administration, Public Administration.

Nevertheless, in , PR were regarded as relations with the general public, closely bound up with the intelligence services as well as internal and external political processes. Hence, it seems clear that the democratic political context in the UK was a key condition for the development of PR there. Research bibliography on the history of PR in Italy is particularly scarce. A number of scholars also highlight specific contextual difficulties relating to the implementation of PR in the Italy of that time: Since Italy was the first enemy territory in Europe to be invaded, the country was regarded by the Allies led by the US as a testing ground for how friendly relationships might be built with local communities.

Toni Muzi Falconi cites the interactive listening systems developed by the fascist regime and, in more specific terms, the occupation of Ethiopia then Abyssinia by Mussolini in and the measures taken to overcome the opposition of the British government. Although the name of the PR agency hired remains unknown, the effectiveness of its intervention is clear from the historical record: The political climate in post-war Italy also evinced a number of PR-related activities.

This program continued into the s and served as a training ground for many Italian PR professionals, who were largely based in Milan private sector and Rome public sector. The business world also took an early interest in PR during the post-war period. The Olivetti campaign comprised a global application of PR, perhaps the most important of its kind in Italy. Life in Italy in the s was marked by the effort to complete the reconstruction of the country following the devastation of war. He hired two respected journalists, Italo Pietra and Mario Pirani, to head up the public and international division of his media relations department.

However, as also proved the case in France, the first PR specialists expressed a marked interest in education and the creation of professional associations. This institute was the first association of its kind in the field of PR, and its mission was to raise awareness about PR and its methodology in relation to both public and private organizational management —a task that was especially challenging due to a social climate in which information strategies were not an established public concern.

Thanks to the work of a small number of committed individuals who had worked together in the Marshall Plan information service, the Associazione Italiana di Relazioni Pubbliche A. The Istituto per le Relazioni Pubbliche and A. One of the successes achieved by the A. In any case, however, one of the primary challenges facing A. Hence, one of the key contributions made by PR in Italy was to the construction of a systematic pedagogical structure, which mirrored the provision of information concerning the objectives, modes and means of PR —in other words, a twofold task combining formation and information.

In fact, the most pressing challenge facing the A. The subsequent period in the history of PR associations, from to , was somewhat more complex and difficult. A number of associations appeared during that time, and not until did they join forces to create the Federazione Relazioni Pubbliche Italiana F. Nevertheless, that the profession had significant precedents within the country to which relatively little attention has been paid in the historical record should also be noted.

In spite of these conclusions, however, the fact that many of the activities described by researchers as precedents, including some of the first campaigns, were political lobbying interventions which often functioned on the border between the provision of objective, free information and propaganda should not be overlooked. Such campaigns involved the use of techniques in the private and public sectors for very different ends. Thus, although research literature on the early days of PR in Italy evinces a context of industrialization and economic growth, frequent reference is also made the need to rehabilitate public opinion, which had been radically undermined by previous political regimes.

One of the objectives of the PR campaigns in themselves was to bring about such rehabilitation, rather than the contrary. Hence, despite the fact that the political context may not be especially democratic, there would also appear to be a need for a climate of economic growth and expansion. The first attempt to set up a PR agency in France was not a success; its failure may have been due to an inhospitable social climate. During the interwar period, the impetus in France was to foster a party political consensus based on a sense of unity.

Except for the period , when France was governed by a coalition of left-wing socialist and radical parties, the political scene in France during the s was dominated by right-wing coalition governments.

However, the initiatives described above were more or less intuitive; PR as such was not established in France until the arrival of US troops and the implementation of the Marshall Plan at the end of World War II. Interest in the overall purpose of PR was keen, and a range of ideas were put into practice, including a company magazine and a manual for employees.

A similar approach was taken by the other companies in the sector: In light of the nationalization of the rail, gas and electricity sectors in France, large oil companies were likewise acutely aware of the possibility that they too might be nationalized. These oil companies were an example to other types of business: The institutionalization of PR in France unfolded over the course of the same time-period.

These meetings gave rise to the first association of PR specialists, the Club de la Maison de Verre , which was also set up in In light of its twofold origin, this professional association had two primary objectives: In addition to these private initiatives, the professional associations also undertook to organize training programs for in-house and external advisors, press associates, as well as PR departments, agencies and services.

Congress was held in Strasburg in and explored the future of PR; the keynote speakers included John W. Hill, President of Hill and Knowlton Co. Legal recognition of the professionalization of PR companies in France was soon to follow. The decree marked the official establishment of PR in France. The ministerial text provides a detailed account of the role of PR, and asserts the need to provide the citizens of the country with objective and honest information.

Besides, the need for PR as part of government activity led the central government to engage in PR. In the late s and early s, prompted perhaps by the development of international exchanges between multinational companies that confirmed a trend towards globalization, the French government began to work with a more global conception of communication. In comparison to the other European countries discussed above, an overview of the situation in Germany discloses a number of distinctive features. The most significant of these is the remarkable interest in the history of PR in academic circles in Germany over the last thirty years.

As a result, German research articles and other academic texts far outnumber those published in all the other countries combined, enabling a comprehensive, chronological account of the history of PR in Germany. However, the fact that these sources were available only in German prevented their incorporation into a more wide-ranging and nuanced framework for a European as opposed to a US-influenced theory of PR. The German-based theory outlined below shows that on the basis of research, and in line with the history of PR in the US, other countries may trace historical precedents of PR activity to the nineteenth century, albeit such endeavors were referred to under different headings or names.

Moreover, the historical circumstances that shaped the context in which PR developed in Germany imply a set of conditions for the emergence of such activity that is in no way similar to the American state of affairs.

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