Psycho-Geometrics ® | Your Personal Communication Style (The Circle Profile eBook)

Psycho-Geometrics ® | Your Personal Communication Style (The Rectangle Profile eBook)

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The final device would include audio recordings, a magnifying glass, a calculator and an electric light for night reading. The first e-book may be the Index Thomisticus , a heavily annotated electronic index to the works of Thomas Aquinas , prepared by Roberto Busa , S. However, this work is sometimes omitted; perhaps because the digitized text was a means for studying written texts and developing linguistic concordances, rather than as a published edition in its own right. All these systems also provided extensive hyperlinking , graphics, and other capabilities. Van Dam is generally thought to have coined the term "electronic book", [18] [19] and it was established enough to use in an article title by FRESS was used for reading extensive primary texts online, as well as for annotation and online discussions in several courses, including English Poetry and Biochemistry.

Thus in the Preface to Person and Object he writes "The book would not have been completed without the epoch-making File Retrieval and Editing System Despite the extensive earlier history, several publications report Michael S. Hart as the inventor of the e-book. Seeking a worthy use of this resource, he created his first electronic document by typing the United States Declaration of Independence into a computer in plain text. After Hart first adapted the Declaration of Independence into an electronic document in , Project Gutenberg was launched to create electronic copies of more texts - especially books.

Detailed specifications were completed in FY 82, and prototype development began with Texas Instruments that same year. Four prototypes were produced and delivered for testing in Tests were completed in Harkins and Stephen H. In , Sony launched the Data Discman , an electronic book reader that could read e-books that were stored on CDs.

One of the electronic publications that could be played on the Data Discman was called The Library of the Future. The scope of the subject matter of these e-books included technical manuals for hardware, manufacturing techniques, and other subjects. As e-book formats emerged and proliferated, [ citation needed ] some garnered support from major software companies, such as Adobe with its PDF format that was introduced in Different e-reader devices followed different formats, most of them accepting books in only one or a few formats, thereby fragmenting the e-book market even more.

Due to the exclusiveness and limited readerships of e-books, the fractured market of independent publishers and specialty authors lacked consensus regarding a standard for packaging and selling e-books. Meanwhile, scholars formed the Text Encoding Initiative , which developed consensus guidelines for encoding books and other materials of scholarly interest for a variety of analytic uses as well as reading, and countless literary and other works have been developed using the TEI approach.

In the late s, a consortium formed to develop the Open eBook format as a way for authors and publishers to provide a single source-document which many book-reading software and hardware platforms could handle. Focused on portability, Open eBook as defined required subsets of XHTML and CSS ; a set of multimedia formats others could be used, but there must also be a fallback in one of the required formats , and an XML schema for a "manifest", to list the components of a given e-book, identify a table of contents, cover art, and so on.

Google Books has converted many public domain works to this open format. In , e-books continued to gain in their own specialist and underground markets. Unofficial and occasionally unauthorized catalogs of books became available on the web, and sites devoted to e-books began disseminating information about e-books to the public.

Consumer e-book publishing market are controlled by the "Big Five". The "Big Five" publishers include: US Libraries began providing free e-books to the public in through their websites and associated services, [36] although the e-books were primarily scholarly, technical or professional in nature, and could not be downloaded. In , libraries began offering free downloadable popular fiction and non-fiction e-books to the public, launching an E-book lending model that worked much more successfully for public libraries.

In early , NLM started PubMed Central , which provides full-text e-book versions of many medical journal articles and books, through cooperation with scholars and publishers in the field. Pubmed Central now provides archiving and access to over 4.

However, some publishers and authors have not endorsed the concept of electronic publishing , citing issues with user demand, copyright piracy and challenges with proprietary devices and systems. This survey found significant barriers to conducting interlibrary loan for e-books. Although the demand for e-book services in libraries has grown in the decades of the s and s, difficulties keep libraries from providing some e-books to clients. This means the library does not own the electronic text but that they can circulate it either for a certain period of time or for a certain number of check outs, or both.

When a library purchases an e-book license, the cost is at least three times what it would be for a personal consumer. However, some studies have found the opposite effect for example, Hilton and Wikey [47]. The Internet Archive and Open Library offer more than six million fully accessible public domain e-books.

Project Gutenberg has over 52, freely available public domain e-books. An e-reader , also called an e-book reader or e-book device , is a mobile electronic device that is designed primarily for the purpose of reading e-books and digital periodicals. An e-reader is similar in form, but more limited in purpose than a tablet. In comparison to tablets, many e-readers are better than tablets for reading because they are more portable, have better readability in sunlight and have longer battery life.

Until late , use of an e-reader was not allowed on airplanes during takeoff and landing by the FAA. Some of the major book retailers and multiple third-party developers offer free and in some third-party cases, premium paid e-reader software applications apps for the Mac and PC computers as well as for Android, Blackberry, iPad, iPhone, Windows Phone and Palm OS devices to allow the reading of e-books and other documents independently of dedicated e-book devices. Writers and publishers have many formats to choose from when publishing e-books. Each format has advantages and disadvantages.

The most popular e-readers [] and their natively supported formats are shown below:. Most e-book publishers do not warn their customers about the possible implications of the digital rights management tied to their products. Generally, they claim that digital rights management is meant to prevent illegal copying of the e-book. However, in many cases, it is also possible that digital rights management will result in the complete denial of access by the purchaser to the e-book.

The first major publisher to omit DRM was Tor Books , one of the largest publishers of science fiction and fantasy, in Some e-books are produced simultaneously with the production of a printed format, as described in electronic publishing , though in many instances they may not be put on sale until later.

Often, e-books are produced from pre-existing hard-copy books, generally by document scanning , sometimes with the use of robotic book scanners , having the technology to quickly scan books without damaging the original print edition. Scanning a book produces a set of image files, which may additionally be converted into text format by an OCR program. Sometimes only the electronic version of a book is produced by the publisher. It is also possible to convert an electronic book to a printed book by print on demand. However, these are exceptions as tradition dictates that a book be launched in the print format and later if the author wishes an electronic version is produced.

The New York Times keeps a list of best-selling e-books, for both fiction [] and non-fiction. All of the e-readers and reading apps are capable of tracking e-book reading data, and the data could contain which e-books users open, how long the users spend reading each e-book and how much of each e-book is finished.

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Some of the results were that only In the space that a comparably sized physical book takes up, an e-reader can contain thousands of e-books, limited only by its memory capacity. Depending on the device, an e-book may be readable in low light or even total darkness. Many e-readers have a built-in light source, can enlarge or change fonts, use text-to-speech software to read the text aloud for visually impaired, elderly or dyslexic people or just for convenience.

Printed books use three times more raw materials and 78 times more water to produce when compared to e-books. Depending on possible digital rights management , e-books unlike physical books can be backed up and recovered in the case of loss or damage to the device on which they are stored, a new copy can be downloaded without incurring an additional cost from the distributor, as well as being able to synchronize the reading location, highlights and bookmarks across several devices. There may be a lack of privacy for the user's e-book reading activities; for example, Amazon knows the user's identity, what the user is reading, whether the user has finished the book, what page the user is on, how long the user has spent on each page, and which passages the user may have highlighted.

Joe Queenan has written about the pros and cons of e-books:.

Family Communication - Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Communication

Electronic books are ideal for people who value the information contained in them, or who have vision problems, or who like to read on the subway, or who do not want other people to see how they are amusing themselves, or who have storage and clutter issues, but they are useless for people who are engaged in an intense, lifelong love affair with books.

Books that we can touch; books that we can smell; books that we can depend on. While a paper book is vulnerable to various threats, including water damage, mold and theft, e-books files may be corrupted, deleted or otherwise lost as well as pirated. Where the ownership of a paper book is fairly straightforward albeit subject to restrictions on renting or copying pages, depending on the book , the purchaser of an e-book's digital file has conditional access with the possible loss of access to the e-book due to digital rights management provisions, copyright issues, the provider's business failing or possibly if user's credit card expired.

The Wischenbart Report estimates the e-book market share to be 4. The Brazilian e-book market is only emerging. Brazilians are technology savvy, and that attitude is shared by the government. In , the growth was slower, Brazil had 3. Create models of real or planned teams to examine the personalities that make them up.

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Details of your Information Pack have been sent to the e-mail address you gave us. Give us your contact details and we'll get in touch at a time to suit you. Rules that are appropriate to govern families with small children may not be useful once children are grown, or they must be revised when new members of the family are introduced. Rules evolve over time, across the life course of family development. A young married couple whose normal way of conversing includes profanities may revise their rules around the use of profanities once children are born and are learning to talk.

Moreover, families of origin introduce us to rules that we often carry over into our current families. A rule to never go to bed angry may be a functional rule that a spouse brings into his or her current family after learning it in his or her family of origin, but a rule that women must be in charge of the children and household chores, while men are in charge of the finances and working outside the home, may be discontinued as cultural rules on these responsibilities change.

Family rules tend to work best when they serve the needs of individual family members as well as the family system, but the system needs to be adaptable enough to make changes as the members themselves change over time. A curfew of 11 p. When the college student comes home on breaks, the curfew may need to be renegotiated. To ensure that rules are serving individual members as well as the family system, family members need to negotiate rules as needed. Rules guiding member behavior are also linked to family roles. Studies of family communication investigate how a family system is rule-governed, but also how individual members enact their roles in that system.

Roles are a critical component of family life and family functioning. They are socially constructed patterns of expected behavior that provide members with a position in the family. Influenced by mass media and other outside forces, this role behavior and expectations for individual family members are primarily developed in interaction within the family, including family rules. We learn our family roles in verbal and nonverbal communication with others. Role expectations are guided by family rules and communicated in daily interaction reifying what is expected of a good mom, dad, son, or daughter.

But certain roles, such as the family scapegoat or black sheep, may not serve the individual, but they serve the family unit by creating alliances. Gender roles in families are central to the study of family communication because sociocultural change in relation to gender also has profound effects on family systems. Family messages about what is considered feminine and masculine begins once the sex of a child is determined in utero or at birth.

Which of the following groupings is considered feminine—pink rooms, dolls, and dresses, or blue rooms, trucks, and pants? Family communication can provide an understanding of how some people classify certain behaviors and objects as gendered. Parents communicate gender to their children all the time, from the toys they purchase and their division of household chores to messages about proper courtship behavior.

In the United States, household chores are typically assigned differently to girls and boys, with girls assigned more household tasks such as dishes and vacuuming, while boys are assigned lawn mowing and taking out the garbage. As society changes to reflect a more multidimensional view of gender, the communication of gender roles in the family will likely be fluid and subject to change.

Family rules and roles are key to understanding family processes, but the two central constructs underlying much of the study of family communication and family function are the communication of intimacy and the communication of control. At the core of family functioning is family cohesion or closeness. As stated earlier, a central function of family communication is to manage separateness and connectedness in the family system. Communication serves to facilitate the emotional connection or cohesion of families and balance emotional distance among members.

Families routinely interact in ways that intensify or decrease feelings of closeness and intimacy with one another and the family as a system. In the case of Heather and Ron, intimacy among members, as well as connection as a family, are being challenged and renegotiated. Even without catastrophic events, managing the tensions between closeness and independence is fundamental to family life. Commitment is a key construct implying a focused energy directed toward maintaining the relationship.

Yet, while this commitment might be interpreted in the United States as equivalent to love, these are actually different constructs. While love is the emotional bond formed among family members, commitment suggests a cognitive decision to devote energy to the relationship.

Not all families have love, or even commitment, and these exist on continua that may be in opposition. Some families are estranged. There is also evidence that certain relationships, such as mother-daughter, can be particularly complicated when considering intimacy. Communication patterns that encourage intimacy, such as nonverbal affection, expressions of affection, and social support may promote closeness and connection, while communication patterns that discourage intimacy e.

When promoting closeness and intimacy in family relationships, there are grand gestures and declarations of commitment e. A private language may develop in family cultures, including but not limited to nicknames, inside jokes, phrases that only family members understand, and private meanings of ordinary words. Family members may offer varying degrees of support to one another emotionally and tangibly by providing resources, and they also disclose private information to some degree.

Self-disclosure is a communication behavior referring to voluntarily telling another person private information that the other person could not obtain in any other way. Sharing information and making the unknown known to others in families is seen a key strategy for nurturing healthy intimate relationships. However, disclosure is not without its risks. Family members also strategically manage private information and decisions about whether to share certain information in order to protect relationships. Spouses tend to disclose more to one another than children do to parents, and siblings are more likely to share disclosures with each other than with their parents.

In sum, families employ a variety of strategies to construct a sense of closeness and intimacy among their members and these strategies are complex and multifaceted. Negotiating closeness is a primary task of the family. In addition to negotiating closeness, another primary task of the family is negotiating power and control. Power relates to the possession of control or command in the family system, and it manifests differently across families and is shaped by the roles, rules, culture, and communication goals of each family.

In individualistic cultures such as the United States, individual goals may be promoted; in collectivistic cultures such as Japan, group or whole-family goals may take precedence over individual-member goals. The way that we look at how families interact is contextualized within larger cultural forces, and this is especially important when examining power and control issues. Power may be distributed in a family according to cultural practices or through ongoing negotiations across time.

Often, distributions of power in families are affected by both culture and these ongoing negotiations. The study of family communication is interested in the verbal and nonverbal messages employed in negotiating power, as well as wielding power, in the family. Topics such as status, conflict, parenting, decision making, and relational control issues such as corporal punishment and domestic violence are all linked to how families communicate power and control. Communication within families is a complex and fascinating phenomenon.

Family communication is not restricted to single messages or to verbal communication among family members. It is a dynamic process of managing power, intimacy, and boundaries, navigating system cohesion and adaptability, and creating images, themes, stories, rituals, rules, roles; it is also an interactive process of making meanings and creating mental models of family life that endure over time and across generations.

In addition to the constitutive view of families and viewing families as a self-regulating system, one of the largest bodies of research in family communication focuses on family communication patterns. Family communication patterns FCP theory explains why family members communicate in the way they do based on their cognitive orientations to one another. Rooted in media studies, early FCP research was interested in how family members process mass media messages. This work focused on the coorientation of family members in interpreting objects in their social environment.

This research discovered that one way of coorienting is to conform to the interpretations of other family members. This approach was initially labeled socioorientation , but was later labeled conformity orientation when the FCP measurement instrument was revised. Individuals within a family with a conformity orientation tend to rely on more powerful others in the family system to interpret the world around them. The second way of coorientating is to discuss the object in the social environment and develop a collective interpretation.

This approach was initially labeled concept orientation , but was later labeled conversation orientation. Individuals within a family with a conversation orientation tend to rely on an open flow of information in conversation to mutually construct a shared interpretation of objects in the social environment. These cognitive orientations have direct impacts on the ways in which families communicate in general, so research on FCP quickly expanded beyond media studies. A large number of studies have tested FCP.

This research reveals that families have varying degrees of both conformity and conversational orientations. Broadly, conformity orientation refers to the degree to which families create a climate that stresses similarity of attitudes, values, and beliefs. Families on the high end of this dimension are characterized by uniformity of beliefs and privileging harmony and obedience in family interactions. Families on the low end of the conformity dimension are characterized by a respect for divergent attitudes and beliefs and for individuality among family members. Conversation orientation has been developed to refer to the degree to which families create a climate of open discussion about a wide variety of topics.

In families on the high end of this dimension, family members frequently interact with each other, without many limitations or sanctions. In families on the low end of this dimension, family members interact less frequently with each other, with few topics openly discussed. A typology of family communication patterns have emerged from this body of research, classifying families into four possible family types. Families that are high on both conversation and conformity orientation are labeled consensual. Their communication is characterized by discussion of ideas, but with pressure toward agreement and not disturbing the legitimate power structure within the family.

Families high in conversation orientation but low in conformity orientation are labeled pluralistic. Communication in these families is characterized by open, unrestricted discussions that involve all family members and independent ideas.

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Families low on conversation orientation but high on conformity orientation are labeled protective. Communication in these families is characterized by an emphasis on obedience and little concern with engaging members in discussion.

Children in these families are easily influenced and persuaded by outside authorities. Families low on conversation and conformity orientation are labeled laissez-faire. Their communication is characterized by very little communicative interaction, low involvement, and high independence rather than interdependence. FCP has a rich history in the study of family communication and provides a foundation for future study. Family communication was recognized as a distinct scholarly area of study by the National Communication Association in Heavily influenced at first by family studies, social psychology, and interpersonal communication theory, family communication scholars soon began developing theories and conducting research focused on the pivotal role of communication within the family system.

It was not until when the first issue of the Journal of Family Communication , the flagship journal for the study of family communication, was published. There was no formal acknowledgment of the study of family communication in the United States until the s. Work by Satir , Minuchin , Kantor and Lehr , and Olson, Sprenkle, and Russell influenced thinking about the interdependence of family and the role of communication in family functioning.

This was initiated by the appearance of an article by Bochner By the early s, family communication research was being published in major journals, with the first family communication textbook published in At this time, family communication research in scholarly journals was often limited to the examination of marital communication, with some work addressing lifespan communication, including sibling communication, marital communication, and even intergenerational communication across the lifespan.

In , the Speech Communication Association SCA , which later became the National Communication Association, recognized family communication as a distinct area of study by forming the SCA family communication division.

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Family communication research exploded in the s with the publication of a number of family communication research—based books and a flurry of studies in academic journals. By the mids, scholars began turning their gaze to topics such as privacy boundary management, family secrets, relational dialectics, communication and race, parenting, family violence, and family interaction. By the turn of the century the interest in examining family communication was at its peak, and in the early s, the first issue of the Journal of Family Communication a was published.

At this time, scholars within the field of communication began testing and building family communication theories rather than relying exclusively on theories originating in other fields.

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