MOON OF THE ENGLISHMANS GOD: Tuckaseegee Chronicles 17 (The Tuckaseegee Chronicles)

Tuckaseegee Chronicles Series

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This has been supplemented with information obtained in the Cherokee Nation in Indian Territory, chiefly from old men and women who had emigrated from what is now Tennessee and Georgia, and who consequently had a better local knowledge of these sections, as well as of the history of the western Nation, than is possessed by their kindred in Carolina.

The historical matter and the parallels are, of course, collated chiefly from printed sources, but the myths proper, with but few exceptions, are from original investigation. The historical sketch must be understood as distinctly a sketch, not a detailed narrative, for which there is not space in the present paper. The Cherokee have made deep impress upon the history of the southern states, and no more has been attempted here than to give the leading facts in connected sequence.

As the history of the Nation after the removal to the West and the reorganization in Indian Territory presents but few points of ethnologic interest, it has been but briefly treated. On the other hand the affairs of the eastern band have been discussed at some length, for the reason that so little concerning this remnant is to be found in print.

One of the chief purposes of ethnologic study is to trace the development of human thought under varying conditions of race and environment, the result showing always that primitive man is essentially the same in every part of the world. With this object in view a considerable space has been devoted to parallels drawn almost entirely from Indian tribes of the United States and British America. For the southern countries there is but little trustworthy material, and to extend the inquiry to the eastern continent and the islands of the sea would be to invite an endless task.

The author desires to return thanks for many favors from the Library of Congress, the Geological Survey, and the Smithsonian Institution, and for much courteous assistance and friendly suggestion from the officers and staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology; and [ 13 ] to acknowledge his indebtedness to the late Chief N. Smith and family for services as interpreter and for kind hospitality during successive field seasons; to Agent H.

Spray and wife for unvarying kindness manifested in many helpful ways; to Mr William Harden, librarian, and the Georgia State Historical Society, for facilities in consulting documents at Savannah, Georgia; to the late Col. Stringfield, of Waynesville; Capt. Terrell, of Webster; Mrs A. Avery and Dr P. Murphy, of Morganton; Mr W. Fair, of Lincolnton; the late Maj. James Bryson, of Dillsboro; Mr H. Jackson, of Smithwood, Tennessee; Mr D. Dunn, of Conasauga, Tennessee; the late Col. Zile, of Atlanta; Mr L.

Bowers, of the United States Fish Commission, for valuable oral information, letters, clippings, and photographs; to Maj. Adger Smyth, of Charleston, S. Brooks for the use of valuable Spanish document copies and translations entrusted to the Bureau of American Ethnology; to Mr James Blythe, interpreter during a great part of the time spent by the author in the field; and to various Cherokee and other informants mentioned in the body of the work, from whom the material was obtained.

The Cherokee were the mountaineers of the South, holding the entire Allegheny region from the interlocking head-streams of the Kanawha and the Tennessee southward almost to the site of Atlanta, and from the Blue ridge on the east to the Cumberland range on the west, a territory comprising an area of about 40, square miles, now included in the states of Virginia, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Alabama. Their principal towns were upon the headwaters of the Savannah, Hiwassee, and Tuckasegee, and along the whole length of the Little Tennessee to its junction with the main stream.

As the advancing whites pressed upon them from the east and northeast the more exposed towns were destroyed or abandoned and new settlements were formed lower down the Tennessee and on the upper branches of the Chattahoochee and the Coosa. As is always the case with tribal geography, there were no fixed boundaries, and on every side the Cherokee frontiers were contested by rival claimants. In Virginia, there is reason to believe, the tribe was held in check in early days by the Powhatan and the Monacan.

On the east and southeast the Tuscarora and Catawba were their inveterate enemies, with hardly even a momentary truce within the historic period; and evidence goes to show that the Sara or Cheraw were fully as hostile. On the south there was hereditary war with the Creeks, who claimed nearly the whole of upper Georgia as theirs by original possession, but who were being gradually pressed down toward the Gulf until, through the mediation of the United States, a treaty was finally made fixing the boundary between the two tribes along a line running about due west from the mouth of Broad river on the Savannah.

Toward the west, the Chickasaw on the lower Tennessee and the Shawano on the Cumberland repeatedly turned back the tide of Cherokee invasion from the rich central valleys, while the powerful Iroquois in the far north set up an almost unchallenged claim of paramount lordship from the Ottawa river of Canada southward at least to the Kentucky river. On the other hand, by their defeat of the Creeks and expulsion of the Shawano, the Cherokee made good the claim which they asserted to all the lands from upper Georgia to the Ohio river, including the rich hunting grounds of Kentucky.

Holding as they did the great mountain barrier between the English settlements on the coast and the French or Spanish garrisons along the Mississippi and the Ohio, their geographic position, no less than their superior number, would have given them the balance of power in the South but for a looseness of tribal organization in striking contrast to the compactness of the Iroquois league, by which for more than a century the French power was held in check in the north.

The English, indeed, found it convenient to recognize certain chiefs as supreme in the tribe, but the only real attempt to weld the whole Cherokee Nation into a political unit was that made by the French agent, Priber, about , which failed from its premature discovery by the English. We frequently find their kingdom divided against itself, their very number preventing unity of action, while still giving them an importance above that of neighboring tribes. Under the various forms of Cuttawa, Gattochwa, Kittuwa, etc.

Cherokee, the name by which they are commonly known, has no meaning in their own language, and seems to be of foreign origin. The name has thus an authentic history of years. There is evidence that it is derived from the Choctaw word choluk or chiluk , signifying a pit or cave, and comes to us through the so-called Mobilian trade language, a corrupted Choctaw jargon formerly used as the [ 16 ] medium of communication among all the tribes of the Gulf states, as far north as the mouth of the Ohio 2.

Concerning both the application and the etymology of this last name there has been much dispute, but there seems no reasonable doubt as to the identity of the people. Linguistically the Cherokee belong to the Iroquoian stock, the relationship having been suspected by Barton over a century ago, and by Gallatin and Hale at a later period, and definitely established by Hewitt in As is usually the case with a large tribe occupying an extensive territory, the language is spoken in several dialects, the principal of which may, for want of other names, be conveniently designated as the Eastern, Middle, and Western.

The Eastern dialect, formerly often called the Lower Cherokee dialect, was originally spoken in all the towns upon the waters of the Keowee and Tugaloo, head-streams of Savannah river, in South Carolina and the adjacent portion of Georgia. Its chief peculiarity is a rolling r , which takes the place of the l of the other dialects. Owing to their exposed frontier position, adjoining the white settlements of Carolina, the Cherokee of this division [ 17 ] were the first to feel the shock of war in the campaigns of and , with the result that before the close of the Revolution they had been completely extirpated from their original territory and scattered as refugees among the more western towns of the tribe.

The consequence was that they lost their distinctive dialect, which is now practically extinct. In it was spoken by but one man on the reservation in North Carolina. The Middle dialect, which might properly be designated the Kituhwa dialect, was originally spoken in the towns on the Tuckasegee and the headwaters of the Little Tennessee, in the very heart of the Cherokee country, and is still spoken by the great majority of those now living on the Qualla reservation. In some of its phonetic forms it agrees with the Eastern dialect, but resembles the Western in having the l sound.

The Western dialect was spoken in most of the towns of east Tennessee and upper Georgia and upon Hiwassee and Cheowa rivers in North Carolina. It is the softest and most musical of all the dialects of this musical language, having a frequent liquid l and eliding many of the harsher consonants found in the other forms. It is also the literary dialect, and is spoken by most of those now constituting the Cherokee Nation in the West. Scattered among the other Cherokee are individuals whose pronunciation and occasional peculiar terms for familiar objects give indication of a fourth and perhaps a fifth dialect, which can not now be localized.

It is possible that these differences may come from foreign admixture, as of Natchez, Taskigi, or Shawano blood. There is some reason for believing that the people living on Nantahala river differed dialectically from their neighbors on either side 3. The Iroquoian stock, to which the Cherokee belong, had its chief home in the north, its tribes occupying a compact territory which comprised portions of Ontario, New York, Ohio, and Pennsylvania, and extended down the Susquehanna and Chesapeake bay almost to the latitude of Washington.

Another body, including the Tuscarora, Nottoway, and perhaps also the Meherrin, occupied territory in northeastern North Carolina and the adjacent portion of Virginia. The Cherokee themselves constituted the third and southernmost body. It is evident that tribes of common stock must at one time have occupied contiguous territories, and such we find to be the case in this instance.

The Tuscarora and Meherrin, and presumably also the Nottoway, are known to have come from the north, while traditional and historical evidence concur in assigning to the Cherokee as their early home the region about the headwaters of the Ohio, immediately to the southward of their kinsmen, but bitter enemies, the Iroquois. The theory which brings the Cherokee from northern Iowa and the Iroquois from Manitoba is unworthy of serious consideration. The most ancient tradition concerning the Cherokee appears to be [ 18 ] the Delaware tradition of the expulsion of the Talligewi from the north, as first noted by the missionary Heckewelder in , and published more fully by Brinton in the Walam Olum in According to the first account, the Delawares, advancing from the west, found their further progress opposed by a powerful people called Alligewi or Talligewi, occupying the country upon a river which Heckewelder thinks identical with the Mississippi, but which the sequel shows was more probably the upper Ohio.

The missionary adds that the Allegheny and Ohio river was still called by the Delawares the Alligewi Sipu, or river of the Alligewi. This would seem to indicate it as the true river of the tradition. He speaks also of remarkable earthworks seen by him in in the neighborhood of Lake Erie, which were said by the Indians to have been built by the extirpated tribe as defensive fortifications in the course of this war. Near two of these, in the vicinity of Sandusky, he was shown mounds under which it was said some hundreds of the slain Talligewi were buried.

In the Walam Olum, which is, it is asserted, a metrical translation of an ancient hieroglyphic bark record discovered in , the main tradition is given in practically the same way, with an appendix which follows the fortunes of the defeated tribe up to the beginning of the historic period, thus completing the chain of evidence. We may consider this a tally date, approximating the beginning of the seventeenth century. It is distinctly stated that all the Talega went south after their final defeat; and from later references we find that they took refuge in the mountain country in the neighborhood of the Koweta the Creeks , and that Delaware war parties were still making raids upon both these tribes long after the first appearance of the whites.

Whatever may be the origin of the name itself, there can be no reasonable doubt as to its application. The Wyandot confirm the Delaware story and fix the identification of the expelled tribe.

According to their tradition, as narrated in , the ancient fortifications in the Ohio valley had been erected in the course of a long war between themselves and the Cherokee, which resulted finally in the defeat of the latter. The traditions of the Cherokee, so far as they have been preserved, [ 20 ] supplement and corroborate those of the northern tribes, thus bringing the story down to their final settlement upon the headwaters of the Tennessee in the rich valleys of the southern Alleghenies.

Owing to the Cherokee predilection for new gods, contrasting strongly with the conservatism of the Iroquois, their ritual forms and national epics had fallen into decay even before the Revolution, as we learn from Adair. According to Haywood, who wrote in on information obtained directly from leading members of the tribe long before the Removal, the Cherokee formerly had a long migration legend, which was already lost, but which, within the memory of the mother of one informant—say about —was still recited by chosen orators on the occasion of the annual green-corn dance.

This migration legend appears to have resembled that of the Delawares and the Creeks in beginning with genesis and the period of animal monsters, and thence following the shifting fortune of the chosen band to the historic period. In another place Haywood says, although apparently confusing the chronologic order of events: He himself had opened it and found it to contain perhaps a thousand disjointed skeletons of both adults and children, the bones piled in successive layers, those near the top being least decayed.

They showed no signs [ 21 ] of violence, but were evidently the accumulation of long years from the neighboring Indian town. The distinguished writer adds: As serving to corroborate this opinion we have the statement of a prominent Cherokee chief, given to Schoolcraft in , that according to their tradition his people had formerly lived at the Peaks of Otter, in Virginia, a noted landmark of the Blue ridge, near the point where Staunton river breaks through the mountains. From a careful sifting of the evidence Haywood concludes that the authors of the most ancient remains in Tennessee had spread over that region from the south and southwest at a very early period, but that the later occupants, the Cherokee, had entered it from the north and northeast in comparatively recent times, overrunning and exterminating the aborigines.

He declares that the historical fact seems to be established that the Cherokee entered the country from Virginia, making temporary settlements upon New river and the upper Holston, until, under the continued hostile pressure from the north, they were again forced to remove farther to the south, fixing themselves upon the Little Tennessee, in what afterward became known as the middle towns.

By a leading mixed blood of the tribe he was informed that they had made their first settlements within their modern home territory upon Nolichucky river, and that, having lived there for a long period, they could give no definite account of an earlier location. While the Cherokee claimed to have built the mounds on the upper [ 22 ] Ohio, they yet, according to Haywood, expressly disclaimed the authorship of the very numerous mounds and petroglyphs in their later home territory, asserting that these ancient works had exhibited the same appearance when they themselves had first occupied the region.

Although, as has been noted, Haywood expresses the opinion that the invading Cherokee had overrun and exterminated the earlier inhabitants, he says in another place, on halfbreed authority, that the newcomers found no Indians upon the waters of the Tennessee, with the exception of some Creeks living upon that river, near the mouth of the Hiwassee, the main body of that tribe being established upon and claiming all the streams to the southward.

There is a dim but persistent tradition of a strange white race preceding the Cherokee, some of the stories even going so far as to locate their former settlements and to identify them as the authors of the ancient works found in the country. The earliest reference appears to be that of Barton in , on the statement of a gentleman whom he quotes as a valuable authority upon the southern tribes.

These wretches they expelled. He gives the location of three of these forts. The Cherokee made war against them and drove them to the mouth of Big Chickamauga creek, where they entered into a treaty and agreed to remove if permitted to depart in peace. Permission being granted, they abandoned the country. Elsewhere he speaks of this extirpated white race as having extended into Kentucky and probably also into western Tennessee, according to the concurrent traditions of different tribes.

He describes their houses, on what authority is not stated, as having been small circular structures [ 23 ] of upright logs, covered with earth which had been dug out from the inside. Harry Smith, a halfbreed born about , father of the late chief of the East Cherokee, informed the author that when a boy he had been told by an old woman a tradition of a race of very small people, perfectly white, who once came and lived for some time on the site of the ancient mound on the northern side of Hiwassee, at the mouth of Peachtree creek, a few miles above the present Murphy, North Carolina.

They afterward removed to the West. Colonel Thomas, the white chief of the East Cherokee, born about the beginning of the century, had also heard a tradition of another race of people, who lived on Hiwassee, opposite the present Murphy, and warned the Cherokee that they must not attempt to cross over to the south side of the river or the great leech in the water would swallow them. The definite history of the Cherokee begins with the year , at which date we find them already established, where they were always afterward known, in the mountains of Carolina and Georgia.

The earliest Spanish adventurers failed to penetrate so far into the interior, and the first entry into their country was made by De Soto, advancing up the Savannah on his fruitless quest for gold, in May of that year. In the meantime [ 24 ] he hoped also to obtain more definite information concerning the mines. Cofitachiqui may have been the capital of the Uchee Indians. The outrageous conduct of the Spaniards had so angered the Indian queen that she now refused to furnish guides and carriers, whereupon De Soto made her a prisoner, with the design of compelling her to act as guide herself, and at the same time to use her as a hostage to command the obedience of her subjects.

Instead, however, of conducting the Spaniards by the direct trail toward the west, she led them far out of their course until she finally managed to make her escape, leaving them to find their way out of the mountains as best they could. Departing from Cofitachiqui, they turned first toward the north, passing through several towns subject to the queen, to whom, although a prisoner, the Indians everywhere showed great respect and obedience, furnishing whatever assistance the Spaniards compelled her to demand for their own purposes.

It is described as the poorest country for corn that they had yet seen, the inhabitants subsisting on wild roots and herbs and on game which they killed with bows and arrows. They were naked, lean, and unwarlike. A chief also gave De Soto two deerskins as a great present. As the Spaniards were greatly in need of corn for themselves and their horses, they made no stay, but hurried on. In a few days they arrived [ 25 ] at Guaquili, which is mentioned only by Ranjel, who does not specify whether it was a town or a province—i. It was probably a small town. Here they were welcomed in a friendly manner, the Indians giving them a little corn and many wild turkeys, together with some dogs of a peculiar small species, which were bred for eating purposes and did not bark.

Traveling still toward the north, they arrived a day or two later in the province of Xuala, in which we recognize the territory of the Suwali, Sara, or Cheraw Indians, in the piedmont region about the head of Broad river in North Carolina. Garcilaso, who did not see it, represents it as a rich country, while the Elvas narrative and Biedma agree that it was a rough, broken country, thinly inhabited and poor in provision.

According to Garcilaso, it was under the rule of the queen of Cofitachiqui, although a distinct province in itself. The chief received them in friendly fashion, giving them corn, dogs of the small breed already mentioned, carrying baskets, and burden bearers.

The country roundabout showed greater indications of gold mines than any they had yet seen. Here De Soto turned to the west, crossing a very high mountain range, which appears to have been the Blue ridge, and descending on the other side to a stream flowing in the opposite direction, which was probably one of the upper tributaries of the French Broad. The chief and principal men came out some distance to welcome them, dressed in fine robes of skins, with feather head-dresses, after the fashion of the country. Before reaching this point the queen had managed to make her escape, together with three slaves of the Spaniards, and the last that was heard of her was that she was on her way back to her own country with one of the runaways as her husband.

Guaxule is described as a very large town surrounded by a number of small mountain streams which united to form the large river down which the Spaniards proceeded after leaving the place. From here De Soto sent runners ahead to notify the chief of Chiaha of his approach, in order that sufficient corn might be ready on his arrival. Leaving Guaxule, they proceeded down the river, which we identify with the Chattahoochee, and in two days arrived at Canasoga, or Canasagua, a frontier town of the Cherokee. From here they continued down the river, which grew constantly larger, through an uninhabited country which formed the disputed territory between the Cherokee and the Creeks.

De Soto had crossed the state of Georgia, leaving the Cherokee country behind him, and was now among the Lower Creeks, in the neighborhood of the present Columbus, Georgia. The other mineral, which the Spaniards understood to be gold, may have been iron pyrites, although there is some evidence that the Indians occasionally found and shaped gold nuggets. Accordingly two soldiers were sent on foot with Indian guides to find Chisca and learn the truth of the stories. They rejoined the army some time after the march had been resumed, and reported , according to the Elvas chronicler, that their guides had taken them through a country so poor in corn, so rough, and over so high mountains that it would be impossible for the army to follow, wherefore, as the way grew long and lingering, they had turned back after reaching a little poor town where they saw nothing that was of any profit.

According to this author the scouts returned full of enthusiasm for the fertility of the country, and reported that the mines were of a fine species of copper, and had indications also of gold and silver, while their progress from one town to another had been a continual series of feastings and Indian hospitalities. There is no record of any second attempt to penetrate the Cherokee country for twenty-six years 9. The next year the French made an unsuccessful attempt at settlement at the same place, and in Menendez made the Spanish occupancy sure by establishing there a fort which he called San Felipe.

Soon after his return he received a letter from the sergeant stating that the chief of Chisca—the rich mining country of which De Soto had heard—was very hostile to the Spaniards, and that in a recent battle the latter had killed a thousand of his Indians and burned fifty houses with almost no damage to themselves. Either the sergeant or his chronicler must have been an unconscionable liar, as it was asserted that all this was done with only fifteen men.

Under instructions from his superior officer, the sergeant with his small party then proceeded to explore what lay beyond, and, taking a road which they were told led to the territory of a great chief, after four days of hard marching they came to his town, called Chiaha Chicha, by mistake in the manuscript translation , the same where De Soto had rested. It is described at this time as palisaded and strongly fortified, with a deep river on each side, and defended by over three thousand fighting men, there being no women or children among them.

It is possible that in view of their former experience with the Spaniards, the Indians had sent their families away from the town, while at the same time they may have summoned warriors from the neighboring Creek towns in order to be prepared for any emergency. However, as before, they received the white men with the greatest kindness, and the Spaniards continued for twelve days through the territories of the same tribe until they arrived at the principal town Kusa?

This second fort was said to be one hundred and forty leagues distant from that in the Sara country, which latter was called one hundred and twenty leagues from Santa Elena. It may have been a frontier Cherokee settlement, and, according to the old chronicler, its chief and language ruled much good country. From here a trail went northward to Guatari, Sauxpa, and Usi, i. Leaving Otariyatiqui, they went on to Quinahaqui, and then, turning to the left, to Issa, where they found mines of crystal mica?

Vandera makes it one hundred leagues from Santa Elena, while Martinez, already quoted, makes the distance one hundred and twenty leagues. The difference is not important, as both statements were only estimates. The combined forces afterward went on, through Cossa Kusa , Tasquiqui Taskigi , and other Creek towns, as far as Tascaluza, in the Alabama country, and returned thence to Santa Elena, having apparently met with a friendly reception everywhere along the route.

From Cofitachiqui to Tascaluza they went over about the same road traversed by De Soto in We come now to a great gap of nearly a century. Shea has a notice of a Spanish mission founded among the Cherokee in and still flourishing when visited by an English traveler ten years later, 39 but as his information is derived entirely from the fraudulent work of Davies, and as no such mission is mentioned by Barcia in any of these years, we may regard the story as spurious The first mission work in the tribe appears to have been that of Priber, almost a hundred years later.

Long before the end of the sixteenth century, however, the existence of mines of gold and other metals in the Cherokee country was a matter of common knowledge among the Spaniards at St. Augustine and Santa Elena, and more than one expedition had been fitted out to explore the interior.

How much permanent impression this early Spanish intercourse made on the Cherokee it is impossible to estimate, but it must have been considerable It was not until that the English first came into contact with the Cherokee, called in the records of the period Rechahecrians, a corruption of Rickahockan, apparently the name by which they were known to the Powhatan tribes. In that year the Virginia colony, which had only recently concluded a long and exterminating war with the Powhatan, was thrown into alarm by the news that a great body of [ 30 ] six or seven hundred Rechahecrian Indians—by which is probably meant that number of warriors—from the mountains had invaded the lower country and established themselves at the falls of James river, where now is the city of Richmond.

The Pamunkey chief, with a hundred of his men, responded to the summons, and the combined force marched against the invaders.

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The result was a bloody battle, with disastrous outcome to the Virginians, the Pamunkey chief with most of his men being killed, while the whites were forced to make such terms of peace with the Rechahecrians that the assembly cashiered the commander of the expedition and compelled him to pay the whole cost of the treaty from his own estate. In all probability it was only the last of a long series of otherwise unrecorded irruptions by the mountaineers on the more peaceful dwellers in the lowlands.

From a remark in Lederer it is probable that the Cherokee were assisted also by some of the piedmont tribes hostile to the Powhatan. The Peaks of Otter, near which the Cherokee claim to have once lived, as has been already noted, are only about one hundred miles in a straight line from Richmond, while the burial mound and town site near Charlottesville, mentioned by Jefferson, are but half that distance. In a Virginia expedition sent out from the falls of James river Richmond crossed over the mountains to the large streams flowing into the Mississippi.

No details are given and the route is uncertain, but whether or not they met Indians, they must have passed through Cherokee territory. In the German traveler, John Lederer, went from the falls of James river to the Catawba country in South Carolina, following for most of the distance the path used by the Virginia traders, who already had regular dealings with the southern tribes, including probably the Cherokee.

He speaks in several places of the Rickahockan, which seems to be a more correct form than Rechahecrian, and his narrative and the accompanying map put them in the mountains of North Carolina, back of the Catawba and the Sara and southward from the head of Roanoke river. They were apparently on hostile terms with the tribes to the eastward, and while the traveler was stopping at an Indian [ 31 ] village on Dan river, about the present Clarksville, Virginia, a delegation of Rickahockan, which had come on tribal business, was barbarously murdered at a dance prepared on the night of their arrival by their treacherous hosts.

On reaching the Catawba country he heard of white men to the southward, and incidentally mentions that the neighboring mountains were called the Suala mountains by the Spaniards. By this time all the tribes of this section, east of the mountains, were in possession of firearms. The first permanent English settlement in South Carolina was established in In James Moore, secretary of the colony, made an exploring expedition into the mountains and reached a point at which, according to his Indian guides, he was within twenty miles of where the Spaniards were engaged in mining and smelting with bellows and furnaces, but on account of some misunderstanding he returned without visiting the place, although he procured specimens of ores, which he sent to England for assay.

In this year, also, Cornelius Dougherty, an Irishman from Virginia, established himself as the first trader among the Cherokee, with whom he spent the rest of his life. If still in existence, this is probably the oldest Cherokee treaty on record. In some Cherokee chiefs went to Charleston with presents for the governor and offers of friendship, to ask the protection of South Carolina against their enemies, the Esaw Catawba , Savanna Shawano , [ 32 ] and Congaree, all of that colony, who had made war upon them and sold a number of their tribesmen into slavery.

They were told that their kinsmen could not now be recovered, but that the English desired friendship with their tribe, and that the Government would see that there would be no future ground for such complaint. About the year the first guns were introduced among the Cherokee, the event being fixed traditionally as having occurred in the girlhood of an old woman of the tribe who died about In the war with the Tuscarora in —, which resulted in the expulsion of that tribe from North Carolina, more than a thousand southern Indians reenforced the South Carolina volunteers, among them being over two hundred Cherokee, hereditary enemies of the Tuscarora.

Although these Indian allies did their work well in the actual encounters, their assistance was of doubtful advantage, as they helped themselves freely to whatever they wanted along the way, so that the settlers had reason to fear them almost as much as the hostile Tuscarora. After torturing a large number of their prisoners in the usual savage fashion, they returned with the remainder, whom they afterward sold as slaves to South Carolina.

Having wiped out old scores with the Tuscarora, the late allies of the English proceeded to discuss their own grievances, which, as we have seen, were sufficiently galling. The result was a combination [ 33 ] against the whites, embracing all the tribes from Cape Fear to the Chattahoochee, including the Cherokee, who thus for the first time raised their hand against the English. The war opened with a terrible massacre by the Yamassee in April, , followed by assaults along the whole frontier, until for a time it was seriously feared that the colony of South Carolina would be wiped out of existence.

In a contest between savagery and civilization, however, the final result is inevitable. The settlers at last rallied their whole force under Governor Craven and administered such a crushing blow to the Yamassee that the remnant abandoned their country and took refuge with the Spaniards in Florida or among the Lower Creeks. The English then made short work with the smaller tribes along the coast, while those in the interior were soon glad to sue for peace.

A number of Cherokee chiefs having come down to Charleston in company with a trader to express their desire for peace, a force of several hundred white troops and a number of negroes under Colonel Maurice Moore went up the Savannah in the winter of —16 and made headquarters among the Lower Cherokee, where they were met by the chiefs of the Lower and some of the western towns, who reaffirmed their desire for a lasting peace with the English, but refused to fight against the Yamassee, although willing to proceed against some other tribes.

At this time they claimed 2, warriors, of whom half were believed to have guns. As the strength of the whole Nation was much greater, this estimate may have been for the Upper and Middle Cherokee only. In March, , this force was increased by one hundred men. The detachment under Colonel Chicken returned by way of the towns on the upper part of the Little Tennessee, thus penetrating the heart of the Cherokee country.

Steps were now taken to secure peace by inaugurating a satisfactory trade system, for which purpose a large quantity of suitable goods was purchased at the public expense of South Carolina, and a correspondingly large party was equipped for the initial trip. A treaty was made by which trading methods were regulated, a boundary line between their territory and the English settlements was agreed upon, and an agent was appointed to superintend their affairs.

Thus were the Cherokee reduced from their former condition of a free people, ranging where their pleasure led, to that of dependent vassals with bounds fixed by a colonial governor. The negotiations were accompanied by a cession of land, the first in the history of the tribe. In little more than a century thereafter they had signed away their whole original territory. The document of already quoted puts the strength of the Cherokee at that time at 2, warriors, but in this estimate the Lower Cherokee seem not to have been included.

In , according to a trade census compiled by Governor Johnson of South Carolina, the tribe had thirty towns, with 4, warriors and a total population of 11, From what we know of them in later times, it is probable that this last estimate is very nearly correct. For reasons of their own, the Chickasaw, whose territory lay within the recognized limits of Louisiana, soon became the uncompromising enemies of the French, and as their position enabled them in a measure to control the approach from the Mississippi, the Carolina government saw to it that they were kept well supplied with guns and ammunition.

British traders were in all their towns, and on one occasion a French force, advancing against a Chickasaw palisaded village, found it garrisoned by Englishmen flying the British flag. In , to further fix the Cherokee in the English interest, Sir Alexander Cuming was dispatched on a secret mission to that tribe, which was again smarting under grievances and almost ready to join with the Creeks in an alliance with the French.

Seven chiefs were selected to visit England, where, in the palace at Whitehall, they solemnly renewed the treaty, acknowledging the sovereignty of England and binding themselves to have no trade or alliance with any other nation, not to allow any other white people to settle among them, and to deliver up any fugitive slaves who might seek refuge with them. In return they received the usual glittering promises of love and perpetual friendship, together with a substantial quantity of guns, ammunition, and red paint. In the next year some action was taken to use the Cherokee and Catawba to subdue the refractory remnant of the Tuscarora in North Carolina, but when it was found that this was liable to bring down the wrath of the Iroquois upon the Carolina settlements, more peaceable methods were used instead.

In or the smallpox, brought to Carolina by slave ships, broke out among the Cherokee with such terrible effect that, according to Adair, nearly half the tribe was swept away within a year. As the pestilence spread unchecked from town to town, despair fell upon the nation. The priests, believing the visitation a penalty for violation of the ancient ordinances, threw away their sacred paraphernalia as things which had lost their protecting power.

Hundreds of the warriors committed suicide on beholding their frightful disfigurement. About the year a trading path for horsemen was marked out by the Cherokee from the new settlement of Augusta, in Georgia, to their towns on the headwaters of Savannah river and thence on to the west. This road, which went up the south side of the river, soon became much frequented. In Christian Priber, said to be a Jesuit acting in the French interest, had come among the Cherokee, and, by the facility with which he learned the language and adapted himself to the native dress and [ 37 ] mode of life, had quickly acquired a leading influence among them.

Under this title he corresponded with the South Carolina government until it began to be feared that he would ultimately win over the whole tribe to the French side. A commissioner was sent to arrest him, but the Cherokee refused to give him up, and the deputy was obliged to return under safe-conduct of an escort furnished by Priber. Five years after the inauguration of his work, however, he was seized by some English traders while on his way to Fort Toulouse, and brought as a prisoner to Frederica, in Georgia, where he soon afterward died while under confinement.

Although his enemies had represented him as a monster, inciting the Indians to the grossest immoralities, he proved to be a gentleman of polished address, extensive learning, and rare courage, as was shown later on the occasion of an explosion in the barracks magazine. Besides Greek, Latin, French, German, Spanish, and fluent English, he spoke also the Cherokee, and among his papers which were seized was found a manuscript dictionary of the language, which he had prepared for publication—the first, and even yet, perhaps, the most important study of the language ever made.

From all that can be gathered of him, even though it comes from his enemies, there can be little doubt that he was a worthy member of that illustrious order whose name has been a synonym for scholarship, devotion, and courage from the days of Jogues and Marquette down to De Smet and Mengarini.

Up to this time no civilizing or mission work had been undertaken by either of the Carolina governments among any of the tribes within their borders. Throughout the eighteenth century the Cherokee were engaged in chronic warfare with their Indian neighbors. As these quarrels concerned the whites but little, however momentous they may have been to the principals, we have but few details.

The war with the Tuscarora continued until the outbreak of the latter tribe against Carolina in gave opportunity to the Cherokee to cooperate in striking the blow which drove the Tuscarora from their ancient homes to seek refuge in the north. The Cherokee then turned their attention to the Shawano on the Cumberland, and with the aid of the Chickasaw finally expelled them from that region about the year Inroads upon the Catawba were probably kept up until the latter had become so far reduced by war and disease as to be mere dependent pensioners upon the whites.

The former friendship with the Chickasaw was at last broken through the overbearing conduct of the Cherokee, and a war followed of which we find incidental notice in , 73 and which terminated in a decisive victory for the Chickasaw about The bitter war with the Iroquois of the far north continued, in spite of all the efforts of the colonial governments, until a formal treaty of peace was brought about by the efforts of Sir William Johnson 12 in the same year. The hereditary war with the Creeks for possession of upper Georgia continued, with brief intervals of peace, or even alliance, until the United States finally interfered as mediator between the rival claimants.

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In we find notice of a large Cherokee war party moving against the Creek town of Coweta, on the lower Chattahoochee, but dispersing on learning of the presence there of some French and Spanish officers, as well as some English traders, all bent on arranging an alliance with the Creeks. The Creeks themselves had declared their willingness to be at peace with the English, while still determined to keep the bloody hatchet uplifted against the Cherokee.

By this time the weaker coast tribes had become practically extinct, and the more powerful tribes of the interior were beginning to take the alarm, as they saw the restless borderers pushing every year farther into the Indian country. As early as Dr Thomas Walker, with a company of hunters and woodsmen from Virginia, crossed the mountains [ 39 ] to the southwest, discovering and naming the celebrated Cumberland gap and passing on to the headwaters of Cumberland river.

Two years later he made a second exploration and penetrated to Kentucky river, but on account of the Indian troubles no permanent settlement was then attempted. In the Cherokee were officially reported to number 2, warriors, as against probably twice that number previous to the great smallpox epidemic sixteen years before.

Their neighbors and ancient enemies, the Catawba, had dwindled to men. Strenuous efforts were made by the English to secure the Cherokee to their interest against the French and their Indian allies, and treaties were negotiated by which they promised assistance. Their preference for the French was but thinly veiled, and only immediate policy prevented them from throwing their whole force into the scale on that side.

The reasons for this preference are given by Timberlake, the young Virginian officer who visited the tribe on an embassy of conciliation a few years later:. I found the nation much attached to the French, who have the prudence, by familiar politeness—which costs but little and often does a great deal—and conforming themselves to their ways and temper, to conciliate the inclinations of almost all the Indians they are acquainted with, while the pride of our officers often disgusts them.

Nay, they did not scruple to own to me that it was the trade alone that induced them to make peace with us, and not any preference to the French, whom they loved a great deal better The English are now so nigh, and encroached daily so far upon them, that they not only felt the bad effects of it in their hunting grounds, which were spoiled, but had all the reason in the world to apprehend being swallowed up by so potent neighbors or driven from the country inhabited by their fathers, in which they were born and brought up, in fine, their native soil, for which all men have a particular tenderness and affection.

He adds that only dire necessity had induced them to make peace with the English in In accordance with the treaty stipulations Fort Prince George was built in adjoining the important Cherokee town of Keowee, on the headwaters of the Savannah, and Fort Loudon near the junction of Tellico river with the Little Tennessee, in the center of the Cherokee towns beyond the mountains. The Cherokee had agreed to furnish four hundred warriors to cooperate against the French in the north, but before Fort Loudon had been completed it was very evident that they had repented of their promise, as their great council at Echota ordered the work stopped and the garrison on the way to turn back, plainly telling the officer in charge that they did not want so many white people among them.

Ata-kullakulla, hitherto supposed to be one of the stanchest friends of the English, was now one of the most determined in the opposition. It was in evidence also that they were in constant communication with the French. By much tact and argument their objections were at last overcome for a time, and they very unwillingly set about raising the promised force of warriors. Quebec was taken September 13, , and by the final treaty of peace in the war ended with the transfer of Canada and the Ohio valley to the crown of England.

Louisiana had already been ceded by France to Spain. Although France was thus eliminated from the Indian problem, the [ 41 ] Indians themselves were not ready to accept the settlement. In the north the confederated tribes under Pontiac continued to war on their own account until In the South the very Cherokee who had acted as allies of the British against Fort Du Quesne, and had voluntarily offered to guard the frontier south of the Potomac, returned to rouse their tribe to resistance.

The immediate exciting cause of the trouble was an unfortunate expedition undertaken against the hostile Shawano in February, , by Major Andrew Lewis the same who had built Fort Loudon with some two hundred Virginia troops assisted by about one hundred Cherokee. After six weeks of fruitless tramping through the woods, with the ground covered with snow and the streams so swollen by rains that they lost their provisions and ammunition in crossing, they were obliged to return to the settlements in a starving condition, having killed their horses on the way.

The Indian contingent had from the first been disgusted at the contempt and neglect experienced from those whom they had come to assist. The Tuscarora and others had already gone home, and the Cherokee now started to return on foot to their own country. Finding some horses running loose on the range, they appropriated them, on the theory that as they had lost their own animals, to say nothing of having risked their lives, in the service of the colonists, it was only a fair exchange. The frontiersmen took another view of the question however, attacked the returning Cherokee, and killed a number of them, variously stated at from twelve to forty, including several of their prominent men.

According to Adair they also scalped and mutilated the bodies in the savage fashion to which they had become accustomed in the border wars, and brought the scalps into the settlements, where they were represented as those of French Indians and sold at the regular price then established by law. The young warriors at once prepared to take revenge, but were restrained by the chiefs until satisfaction could be demanded in the ordinary way, according to the treaties arranged with the colonial governments.

While the women were still wailing night and morning for their slain kindred, and the Creeks were taunting the warriors for their cowardice in thus quietly submitting to the injury, some lawless officers of Fort Prince George committed an unpardonable outrage at the neighboring Indian town while most of the men were away hunting. Soon there was news of attacks upon the back settlements of Carolina, while on the other side of the mountains two soldiers of the Fort Loudon garrison were killed. War seemed at hand. At this juncture, in November, , a party of influential chiefs, having first ordered back a war party just about to set out from the western towns against the Carolina settlements, came down to Charleston and succeeded in arranging the difficulty upon a friendly basis.

The assembly had officially declared peace with the Cherokee, when, in May of , Governor Lyttleton unexpectedly came forward with a demand for the surrender for execution of every Indian who had killed a white man in the recent skirmishes, among these being the chiefs of Citico and Tellico. Adams commanded the 1st Maryland Regiment at Camden, but left the southern army afterward, and was replaced by Col. On July 19th, he was given command of the Virginia brigade replacing Huger , which combined the 1st and 2nd Virginia regiments, while Capt.

Thomas Edmunds took his place as head of the 1st Virginia Regiment. Campbell was mortally wounded at Eutaw Springs, though he survived some hours after the battle. However, due to a dispute with his superior Col. Charles Harrison, Carrington withdrew from his command. When Gates arrived to take charge of the army, he sent Carrington to Virginia to inquire into the availability of crossings on the Roanoke River, which Greene extended to the Dan River.

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Greene appointed Carrington his Quartermaster General in which capacity he served admirably. In March through May, he led the American negotiations with Cornwallis for the exchange of prisoners, while continuing to carry out his functions as quartermaster. One of his last actions while with the southern army was securing horses from North Carolina for Greene. Ford commanded the 5th or, says one good source, the 6th Maryland Regiment at Camden.

Whether he was captured at that engagement is not clear. He left the southern army for Virginia on or before April 4th due to rheumatism, and to recruit for the regiment. Howard commanded 2nd Maryland Regiment at Camden, and subsequently the 1st Maryland Regiment, and, in a detached capacity, the Maryland-Delaware light battalion at Cowpens. Howard saw as much battle field service in the southern campaigns as almost any of the higher ranking officers in the southern campaigns, being present at Camden, Cowpens, the Race to the Dan, Weitzell's Mill, Guilford Court House, Hobkirk's Hill, Ninety-Six and Eutaw Springs, as well as Camden and Cowpens.

The gallantry and achievement of the 1st Maryland Regiment under his command in these engagements Hobkirk's Hill excepted speaks more highly of him than any panegyric could. He joined the troops defending Charleston and served under Moultrie as volunteer, his troops skirmishing with the British in their advance on the city.

Captured at its fall, he was paroled then exchanged. In the spring of , he sailed to France to assist Franklin in getting money and supplies. Laurens was the son of Henry Laurens, the well-known American envoy to France. Though ambitious for glory, sometimes brash, and not always easy for some to get along with, Lee was the American response to Tarleton, ever active and aggressive. His Legion instilled a pride to American arms, which won the respect of friend and foe alike.

Though criticized for his performance at Guilford Court House and Eutaw Springs, as well as the fact that he was probably too cavalier in risking the lives of militia in order to protect his own men, his omnipresence in the Guilford Court House campaigns, and his running successes while assisting at the reductions of Fort Watson, Fort Motte, Fort Granby, and Augusta more than demonstrate his extraordinary effectiveness as a military leader.

His history of the war in the south, though often unreliable in its details and perhaps too self-promoting, is an otherwise noble work, and among the very best of Revolutionary War memoirs. Vaughn commanded the Delaware Regiment at Camden where he was taken prisoner. A cousin of the General, after Tarleton, no other leader was present at more engagements in the south than Lieut. He was present at the defense of Charleston in Fighting outside of the city, however, he was spared being made prisoner by the British.

While absent at the battle of Camden, Washington actively served with the southern army up until the time of Eutaw Springs, where he was wounded and captured. As well as being a highly successful cavalry and partisan officer, Washington was unlike Lee evidently an affable individual, as one never encounters a bad word spoken of him. On the other hand, Woolford is often listed as being one of those wounded and taken prisoner at Camden, so that he might not, after all, have been with the detachment, at least not at the time of Fishing Creek.

Anderson fought at Camden, and distinguished himself by keeping himself and his men collected in the post battle withdrawal. Though not at Cowpens, he was at Guilford Court House, where he was killed. John Armstrong, 1st and shortly afterward, 2nd North Carolina Regiment of Greene first appointed Eaton to command at Hillsborough, N.

Gunby, however, ended up remaining in Hillsborough. He was killed on 21 May during possibly after the fighting at Fort Grierson, one of the two posts at Augusta. He assumed command of the 2nd Maryland Regiment on the death of Col. He was sent to Virginia in August to get horses for the Legion, but was unsuccessful because the horses collected ended up being used at Yorktown. He had become a major by late September The name of Capt.

John and a Capt. Having fought in many actions in , Armstrong was ultimately captured at Dorchester on 13 December of that year, and was held captive till the end of the war. There he sent a messenger back to Lee, a mile or two behind, to ask if he should continue with the attack, without telling Lee, however, that most of the planks had been loosened on the bridge.

Lee replied back, correspondingly, with an emphatic yes. Edmunds was given command of the 1st Virginia Regiment on 19 July , when Lieut. Richard Campbell left that spot to take command of the Virginia battalion. Edmunds was wounded at Eutaw Springs. Anthony White was ill in late , and, says Babits, served at Cowpens. Finley first saw action with the Southern army at Guilford Court House. In his Memoirs , Lee singles out Capt. Kirkwood was with the southern army from Camden till 1 January , when he was furloughed and returned home to Delaware.

At the same time, he and his company of Delawares were distinguished as elite. He was taken prisoner, and was not set free until January , when Rochambeau arranged for his exchange. In May of that year he was promoted to Brevet Major. Oldham was at Camden, served at Guilford Court House, and commanded a company detachment of Maryland light infantry that assisted Lee at Pyle's ambush, and the sieges of Ft.

Lee writes "To the name of Captain Oldham, too much praise cannot be given. He was engaged in almost every action in the South, and was uniformly distinguished for gallantry and good conduct. With the exception of Kirkwood of Delaware, and Rudolph [Michael Rudulph] of the Legion infantry, he was probably entitled to more credit than any officer of his rank in Greene's army.

At Camden, Smith was wounded and taken prisoner. He was back with the army soon after, but whether through escape or exchange is not clear: He acquired some notoriety for slaying Lieut. Stuart of the Guards at Guilford in sword-to-sword combat, though some of the British accused him of murdering Stuart after having taken him prisoner.

The truth is Smith dealt the death-blow when Stuart had lost his footing, but would have had no time to have taken him prisoner. However, there was evidently a second Capt. In attempting to rescue the artillery, all of his men were killed, though the guns were finally saved. Suffering a contusion, Smith was taken prisoner, but was left in Camden on parole when Rawdon evacuated the town May 10th. He shortly afterward on May 21st went voluntarily to Charleston as a prisoner in order to be exchanged. Johnson tells the story of how on his subsequent return from Charleston, Smith was waylaid by a band of tories, masquerading as whigs, who gave him a good flogging.

Though not much formally educated, Smith appears to have been an intelligent, as well as a brave and colorful individual. Pinkertham Eaton, who was killed following the assault on Fort Grierson in May Hawes was so ill as to be unable to continue in that position. At the latter battle, he was wounded in the thigh, and forced to return to his home state.

He was one of the Virginia state officials and officers who avoided being captured by Tarleton at Charlottesville in June When the North Carolina militia at that battle came routing through his line, Stevens, in order to avert panic among his own men, told them to make a path for the North Carolinians, since their retreat had been arranged in advance. In fact, no such thing had been planned. Campbell received his commission as Colonel in April , and in the summer of that year was occupied with putting down the numerous loyalists in southwest Virginia.

In February , he joined Greene with a corps of Virginia riflemen. Returning to Virginia, it was not long before his services were soon much wanted. Campbell was promoted to Brigadier, and in June led a corps of south and southwest county riflemen to reinforce Lafayette. This force later grew to men. Tragically, however, he came down with a chest ailment, which he died of while at Rocky Hills, in Hanover County. This Brigadier of the Virginia riflemen was only 36 years old.

Along with William Campbell, Lynch spent much of his time in fighting the loyalists, tories, and Indians of southwest Virginia. After that, he seems to have remained in his own area suppressing the loyalist or assisting against the Cherokees. Possibly he and few of his men might have been at Guilford. If so, they would have been only a handful. Preston subsequently acted as one of the negotiators with the Cherokees, and on July 20th the Virginia Council appointed him as one of the commissioners of the western counties assigned the task of settling the disbursement of public monies and other concerns relating to a peace treaty with the Indians.

Preston, however, fell ill, and was forced to resign. Contrary perhaps to what one might have expected, Preston was, for his area at least, a refined and well-educated person with a taste for literature, and, among his other talents, wrote poetry. Porterfield, from Frederick County VA. His was one of the few American units to have come out of that action with any credit, and Porterfield himself was mortally wounded. For ten days he went without medical attention, when he was then taken to Camden and his left leg amputated.

While there, Porterfield was treated kindly and generously as their own circumstances allowed by Cornwallis and Rawdon. Following this he was paroled, but not long after succumbed to the effects of his wound. They seem to have typically acted as a skirmishing or else guard detachment. Triplett commanded the Virginia militia at Cowpens. He and his men returned home not long afterward.

Tate led a company of Virginia militia at Cowpens. Tate had his thigh broken in the fighting on the New Garden Road preceding Guilford. Next to the name of each leader is the County he represented. The County referred to is usually that which existed at the time , though the particular locale where the leader actually came from may, since then, have been formed into a new County. In other instances the later or most recent County name for the area of residence is given.

Tryon County, named after North Carolina Royal Governor William Tryon, was abolished by the state in , and out of it was formed Rutherford the western half and Lincoln the eastern half counties. Nevertheless, new, as well as old, histories will sometimes still refer to Tryon County with respect to events of this period.

Caswell, who had earlier been the governor of the state, was the head of the North Carolina militia, up until the time just after Camden, when the North Carolina government appointed Brig. William Smallwood to replace him. Being deprived of his command, Caswell resigned his commission.

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By January , however, he returned to take part in re-establishing the militia forces in the state, and became commandant of the militia in the eastern part of the state. He was ill for a time, thus missing Guilford Court House, and subsequently acted more as a military administrator, for which he was better suited, rather than a field commander. Butler commanded brigades at both Camden and Guilford Court House, and in both instances, most of his men fled in the face of the British.

To what extent these occurrences were a comment on his military abilities is not easy to say. Like Robert Lawson of Virginia he was a committed and hardworking soldier, if not a stirring leader. Butler had more success in late when fighting the loyalists in the eastern part of the state. Yet like Greene, his defeat became a victory when, just afterward, he drove Fanning and the loyalists back into Wilmington. He later removed them to Cross Creek when word came in of Charleston's capitulation.

However, on the other hand, we should not assume from this that he was without ability. Along with Griffith Rutherford, Davidson was no doubt the best of the higher-ranking North Carolina militia leaders. After Griffith Rutherford was captured at the latter engagement, Davidson was appointed head of the militia in western North Carolina, and later replaced Smallwood as commander of the entire North Carolina militia when the latter left to go home to Maryland. For a time Davidson acted in cooperation with Morgan facing the British on the South Carolina-North Carolina border, bringing Morgan some crucial reinforcements prior to Cowpens.

Although his North Carolina militia were defeated, the British may have had as many as casualties thanks to their efforts, having done this without any assistance from the Continentals. He had succeeded Brig. Allen Jones when the latter became ill a week or so before that battle. Gregory commanded one of the North Carolina militia brigades at Camden, where he himself was wounded and taken prisoner.

BITTERSWEET FREEDOM IN A FARAWAY LAND: Tuckaseegee Chronicles 1 (The Tuckaseegee Chronicles)

By no later than June , Gregory was exchanged and commanded a force of militia in the northeastern portion of the state. He, however, suffered very few losses in the action, and was able to resume his position guarding the entry into North Carolina immediately after the British left. Beginning at the time just prior to Camden, Harrington led a command primarily in upper Pee Dee and Cheraw areas combating the loyalists.

His headquarters were chiefly at Cross Creek, though before that he was at Haley's Ferry near Cheraw. In about mid-December , he removed north to Grassy Creek on the Roanoke River, after which time his name does not appear to arise. In early , Jones was placed in charge of one of the North Carolina militia brigades in preference to Sumner. However, soon falling ill, he was unable to continue in his command, and was replaced by Thomas Eaton.

In the course of the war, Jones was active in both civil and military matters. In January , Lillington was occupied with suppressing the loyalists in the Drowning Creek area. Yet when the British occupied Wilmington later in the month, he took up a position to the northwest, acting to keep Maj. Craig and his force contained there.

Thereafter he occupied Cross Creek and for the most part managed to keep Craig in check. After Cornwallis moved into Virginia, Lillington resumed his post above Wilmington, though was not apparently involved in further fighting. He commanded one of the North Carolina brigades at Camden, at which he was badly wounded and captured. Rutherford was sent to St. Augustine to be confined, but on 22 June was exchanged. When he returned to the field he took charge of the Salisbury militia, in place of Col. Locke, and, along with Butler, went on to carry out a successful offensive against Fanning and the loyalists northwest of Wilmington until the British finally evacuated that town in December.

Brown led a force of local militia in a series of skirmishes against Capt. With much horse stealing, looting, and kidnapping going on, the areas the two men covered seem to have had their fair share of the devil. Much of the subsequent summer, Cleveland his men were occupied policing or chasing tories below the mountains. In the fall, they served a three-month tour of duty under Brig. Rutherford in southeastern North Carolina. Cleveland had the somewhat unusual distinction of weighing some pounds.

Davie was raised in the Waxhaws settlement of South Carolina, but his militia ties were more with North Carolina people of Mecklenburg, since it was from that district that he received most of his command. In the summer of , Maj. He worked with Sumter at Rocky Mount and Hanging Rock, and showed himself to be a very capable combat leader. In many ways he resembles Lee, being at least in his education and social standing something of an aristocrat, republican and partisan -- all at the same time.

During the retreat from Camden, his was about the only American unit still fully intact, and by informing Sumter of what had happened at Camden at least made it possible for the latter to escape. At the time Morgan was operating with his corps of light troops in late December , Davie was making plans to form a legion of North Carolina men to join him with.

However, Greene asked him instead to become the commissary general for North Carolina, arguing that he would be much more useful to the army in that role. Davie reluctantly agreed, but only on the condition that he could leave that position as soon as his services were no longer necessary. Appointed to the position on January 16th by the state of North Carolina, he acted in that capacity till about the time of the siege of Ninety-Six. After that he does not seem to have been directly engaged in military service, but instead became involved in North Carolina politics, ultimately settling in Halifax.

Well educated and licensed to practice law, Davie was one of the founders of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Dixon was a Lieut. At one point in the action his regiment charged the British regulars at the point of the bayonet and drove them back. Dixon, however, declined the post as being too far from his own residence. The position ultimately went to Col. Henry Dixon of Caswell County, whom I well knew and who was…a regular officer of the North Carolina line, had the command of a regiment of Caswell's militia and who by his skill in military discipline and tactics had trained his troops to stand and do their duty in battle with great firmness and order.

Farmer commanded a militia regiment at Eutaw Springs under Col. Francis Malmady, though his men reportedly performed with less than great distinction. Then sometime in probably late September , he, along with three others, defeated a band of 23 tories who were attacking his home, which afterward became known as "Graham's Fort. However, on the very morning of the battle he received word his wife was very ill, and so was forced to return home.

His command then was given to Lieut. Graham does not appear to have been directly related to Joseph Graham. Lock commanded the whig forces at Ramsour's mill, and later served under Pickens in the Guilford Court House campaign. In late summer of , Lock was succeeded by General Rutherford. Malmady was colonel in the Continental service, but who became actively involved with the North Carolina militia. He was probably at the battle of Camden, for he went to Philadelphia afterward, and was one of those who asked for the recall of Gates.

During the summer of , he spent much of his time trying to raise and arm a new command, after the term of enlistment for his previous one had expired. He subsequently led the North Carolina militia at Eutaw Springs. The Marquis was rather presumptuous at times, and a bit high strung. Rankin is inclined to characterize him as a nuisance.

Yet on more than one occasion he showed himself an able and useful leader. Draper states that he served a tour in the spring of against Cornwallis and also in August of that year, but gives no details. It is then something of a mystery what exactly he was doing during this time, but it is a safe bet that he was serving alongside or near Cleveland both in the Guilford campaign, and in keeping down the tories in northwest North Carolina. That McDowell was very capable combat leader his military record gives ample testimony.

He was not, however, a strong military leader which ironically may have worked to the Americans advantage. His repulse at Cane Creek in September may have led Ferguson into thinking the whig militia had little fighting left in them, thus encouraging him to take unnecessary risks. McDowell was not at that decisive battle which he, as much as anyone else, helped to bring about.

Polk was a wealthy and eminent citizen of Rowan County, and one of the early leaders in the cause for Independence. He acted as commissary in Salisbury for both Gates and Greene. In the spring of , Greene worked to have Polk made head of the Salisbury militia, but Col. Francis Lock was appointed instead. He was uncle to President James Polk. Read was a captain in the Continental army, who, acted at Colonel in the N. He later became chief military advisor to Governor Thomas Burke and was captured along with the Governor by Fanning in September Fellow colonel Guilford Dudley spoke of Read as a dutiful and reliable officer.

Robeson scored a surprising victory against the loyalists at Elizabethtown in August Reading his correspondence with Greene, Wade comes across as something of a character , who knew well how to work with people. Although a supply officer, he had his share of fighting with both the British and the Cross Creek loyalists in his efforts to move supplies and protect his magazine.

Williams served at King's Mountain and shared in defeating the tory leaders Col. Gideon Wright and Col. Hezekiah Wright at Shallow Ford in October Later in the same month, Greene appointed him one of the negotiators with the Cherokees. William Graham was forced to return home to attend to his wife, who was very sick. However, later in his book he states it was Lieut. Hambright, which would seem to be more correct.

At the battle, Chronicle was among those slain. Dickson was a member of the North Carolina assembly at the start of the war. Joseph Graham, who was with him under Pickens, makes mention of Dickson a few times in his reminiscences. Graham, when not more than 22 years old, was with Davie in the defense of Charlotte in late September , commanding a troop of mounted riflemen. He won honor for himself in that engagement, and received multiple wounds in the fighting, both by sabers and bullets. This laid him up in the hospital for two months.

Graham later commanded a troop of dragoons during the Guilford Court House campaign, where he served under Pickens. During the summer he resumed his military activities, and by September was promoted to Major. Lossing states that, in the autumn, in an effort to rescue Gov. Thomas Burke who had been captured by David Fanning , Graham led a force of dragoons and mounted men against tories and at a location south of Cross Creek, defeating them. He fought in a few more actions, and retired from the service in November. But for these writings, there would be huge gaps in our knowledge and understanding of the military conflict in the south.

A French volunteer, Bretigney commanded a troop of light horse and mounted men before, at, and after Guilford Court House. These officers lived in what is now Tennessee, but what was then considered a part of North Carolina. In late December he led an expedition against the Cherokees and their allies, while in was one of the negotiators in peace talks with them. Sevier lived in the Watauga-Nolachucky settlement, south of the Holston River. He acted as both a civil administrator and military leader for his district.

In addition, Sevier was involved in a number of battles with the Indians. In February , Greene appointed him one of the representatives in peace negotiations with the Cherokees, while in the same month he was promoted to full colonel. Fittingly, after Shelby became the first Governor of Kentucky in , Sevier, in , became the same for Tennessee. One is struck how time and again to he took his men to assist others in need of help elsewhere.

He is said to have fought at Briar Creek in faraway Georgia in late April of It is not clear if this is true, since he was supposedly occupied protecting the frontier against the Indians at that time. Yet even if not true, it is just the kind of thing one might expect he would do. This high sense of responsibility was matched by a high sense of honor. When Ferguson, with his threats and ultimatum, challenged the self-respect and integrity of the over-mountain people, there were some who thought it would be best to disperse and lie low. South Carolina at that time did not have counties, but rather districts or precincts , some of which, like Ninety-Six, covered fairly wide-ranging areas.

The original South Carolina Districts were: Reference below is made to modern County names, however, in order to help better locate where an engagement took place, or where an individual had his residence. Originally a lieutenant colonel with the 2nd South Carolina Regiment, Marion was absent from Charleston when the city fell, due, reportedly, to his ankle being broken. He next appeared when the American army entered South Carolina in July, at which time he brought a small, rag-tag group of followers to General Gates and offered his services.

Neither Gates nor Marion himself thought he and his men would be of much use with the main army, and they were directed to obstruct British communications and lines of retreat along the Santee. Shortly after his return to the Williamsburg area located roughly north of the Santee and just east of the Pee Dee , Marion was chosen by the local officers to head of the militia, this on the basis of his previous military experience. From there he went on to become the partisan extraordinaire of the Revolution.

Marion was a unique figure among the higher-ranking South Carolina leaders. He does not appear to have been especially well educated, yet he was intelligent and sensitive to principle. He seems to have desired fame, yet he was also a person of high moral character and ideals. Marion had insubordination problems on more than one occasion. True, it was difficult for any militia leader to keep men together for very long, but for Marion at times it seemed worse than for others.

In addition, he had the unfortunate habit of wording his orders in an impersonal and peremptory manner. In these respects, Marion understandably alienated some. Yet in his adhering to doing things in what he thought was the right way, Marion showed himself to have been a true son of Gideon: Though let down by some of his officers there, it nevertheless turned out to be what was perhaps his greatest victory. Marion faced many problems leading his men and carrying on the fight, but in staying the course, by sticking to his principles, he was ultimately successful like few others.

Pickens had been active in fighting the British in Georgia in , but when Clinton conquered the state in the spring of , Pickens submitted to Royal amnesty and protection. While this decision might be seen as reflecting badly on him, in his defense it might be pointed out that the area in which he lived was heavily loyalist, and he had a home and family to look out for. Indeed it was finally because the British failed to protect his home from some tories that in December he concluded that he was not bound by his pledge. Yet his most extraordinary command was when he led the North Carolina militia in the Guilford Court House campaign.

It was there he got to know Henry Lee, with whom he later besieged Augusta. That the North Carolina men willing accepted a South Carolina officer as their head, while in their home state no less, speaks to both the credibility and authoritativeness of his character. His military ability is difficult to assess because Pickens really did not achieve dramatic success as an independent commander.

Yet in the vacuum left by the expulsion of the loyalists from Ninety-Six in the summer of , he played a crucial role in helping to restore law and order to that area. Although Sumter had been an officer in the 6th South Carolina Regiment, he was not serving at the time of the siege of Charleston. It would have been well for them if they had succeeded because for a time Sumter was South Carolina. He was the one leader, working in cooperation with the Georgians and North Carolinians, who was able to bring together fairly large bodies of militia and take on the regulars.

While it is true that much of the credit for the successes he knew goes to many of his subordinates, it was Sumter who united them. As well as being a good politician, Sumter had a sharp sense for strategy. He knew the country and he knew the people. Like Morgan he was a high-ranking officer whom the common soldier could relate to. Yet unlike Morgan, he had a hard time obtaining the respect of other high-ranking officers.

Nor, to say the least, did he always act wisely. His refusal to assist Morgan seems petty and ludicrous to us. Probably the key to understanding Sumter lies in the fact that when he did act ill advisedly, or showed poor judgment, it was more out of foolishness than bad character. Williams led men at Musgrove's Mill, and was at King's Mountain where he was killed at 40 years of age. Williams was a potential rival to Sumter and much of what we know about him comes from William Hill. Williams fall, and a braver or a better man never died upon the field of battle. I had seen him once before that day; it was in the beginning of the action, as he charged by me full speed around the mountain; toward the summit a ball struck his horse under the jaw when he commenced stamping as if he were in a nest of yellow jackets.

The moment I heard the cry that Col. Williams was shot, I ran to his assistance, for I loved him as a father, he had ever been so kind to me, and almost always carried carrying cake in his pocket for me and his little son Joseph. They carried him into a tent, and sprinkled some water in his face. I left him in the arms of his son Daniel, and returned to the field to avenge his fall. Williams died next day, and was buried not far from the field of his glory. Williamson was head of the Ninety-Six militia at the time Charleston surrendered.

Like many then and shortly after , Williamson agreed to accept Royal protection, and, after taking a vote among his officers, had his men lay down their arms. While we might today look askance at such behavior, we must remember that Pickens and others accepted protection as well. What made Williamson unusual was that he removed to Charleston, and continued to outwardly maintain his status as a loyal subject of the crown.

For this, he came to be seen by many as a traitor. When whig leader Col. Isaac Hayne temporarily captured Williamson near Charleston, in early July , it was believed by some that Williamson would be hanged. As it turned out, in a turning of tables, Maj. They made Hayne prisoner, and it was Hayne, afterward, who was hanged. Later in , however, Williamson is believed to have secretly supplied important information to Col. As a result, Williamson ended the last years of his life a wealthy and prosperous man.

Yet it is not hard to see that such would have been poor consolation to the odium he endured for having behaved so timidly in the time of crisis. Anderson was at the second siege of Augusta and Ninety-Six. Very likely he was also at Eutaw Springs. Brandon was among the first who took up arms against the British after the fall of Charleston. He served under Brig. His name does not seem to come up further with respect to the fighting, though this probably due simply to gaps in the record.

After the war, Brandon was made a Brigadier General of the militia. His name does not arise in any of the known descriptions of battles and skirmishes, and is listed here merely to distinguish him from his brother, Thomas. Bratton was originally from Northern Ireland and moved with his family first to Pennsylvania, then Virginia, and finally, in , to what is now York County.

It is also likely he participated in the Dog Days Expedition of July Along with Richard and Wade, Henry was one of the three Hampton brothers. By the time of the last, his regiment was fully mounted and included some cavalry, as did those of his brothers. When Sumter formed his regiments in the spring of , Richard Hampton, then a major, acted as second in command to Col. Yet coming to suspect his sincerity, in November they confiscated some goods from his stock. By February, Hampton was in contact with Sumter and was informing him of the strength of British forces in his area.

When Sumter came that same month on his expedition to the posts along the Congaree and Santee, Hampton joined him and went on to became one of his most successful field officers of mounted troops. At the time of Eutaw Springs, he was part of the State Troops under Henderson, and when Henderson was wounded there, Hampton assumed command of the cavalry. After the war, he became extremely rich through his plantation holdings and produce. In early April , Harden received a commission as colonel and authorization from Marion to operate with in independent partisan command in the region between Charleston, Augusta and Savannah.

His force was made up largely of men from Barnwell County, and Georgia. Initially, his force was rather small, but over time it grew at one point to men, though typically it was difficult for Harden to keep his men together on a regular basis. Nevertheless, Harden was very successful operating in the heart of what was then enemy country, and in a number of skirmishes achieved notable success. So much so that by mid-spring, Balfour complained that overland communications between Charleston to Savannah had become impossible.

Yet exactly what caused this insubordination we can only speculate. The temporary intimidation they achieved hardly was worth the censure and criticism that was subsequently leveled at them. Further, Hayne, after all, made something of a fool of himself, when after capturing Williamson he was captured himself. Had Balfour and Rawdon used the incident as propaganda and mockery, they would have done far better than they did in making him a martyr.

Hill was one of those who first gathered men to fight the British after the siege of Charleston. Even so, he does not seem to have been an officer of special merit when it came actual fighting. Bratton's where in battle they killed a celebrated British Gen. Christian Huck]; from there to Blackstock where had fight with Col. Tarlatan [Tarleton] at which place Gen. Sumpter was wounded in the shoulder and had it not been for Col. Hill, we would have taken every person there. He behaved so cowardly that he had his side arms taken from him and a wooden stick placed in the scabbard. After Greene returned south in the spring of , Horry was appointed to organize a corps of light dragoons for the South Carolina State Troops.

Most of what we know about Marion and his operations comes from Horry, whether through the order book he kept, or as passed down to us through South Carolina historian William Dobein James.

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Boatner mistakenly states that he was at Eutaw Springs, when in fact Marion wrote him after the battle reporting what had happened. On April 28th, , Kolb, known for his ruthlessness against the Tories, was captured at his home and murdered by 50 of them led by Joseph Jones. Afterward, Kolb's death appears to have incited the loyalists to activity. Though perhaps more famous for his death, Kolb was a usually reliable officer who often assisted Marion, and was successful at combating the loyalists in what was typically a volatile area.

Augustus Black who is the greatest antiquarian in the State , that Col. Edward Lacey has never presented an account of Revolutionary War services against the State, and, of course, has never received any remuneration. Murfee was one of those officers who operated in his own neighborhood near the Pee Dee Rivers, engaging in frequent small skirmishes with the local loyalists.

From to late , he was keeping tories like Ganey and Barfield busy, which consequently freed Marion to take care of more pressing matters elsewhere in the state. Myddleton was one of the original leaders of Sumter's brigade. He appears to have been a relatively more cultivated individual than his associates, and often acted as Sumter's staff officer. Neale, spoken of by his contemporaries as a leader of great promise, was killed leading one of the assaults on Rocky Mount in late July After that, while continuing to serve, he does not seem to have been all that active as a commander in the field.

The town of Winnsborough was named after a member of his family. Henderson, as an officer in the 6th South Carolina Regiment, was present at the siege of Charleston, and there led a gallant and tactically successful sortie. When the city fell, he was made prisoner but by early November he was exchanged. He appears in the record again in May at the time of the siege of Ninety-Six. He led them at Eutaw Springs where he was wounded. Both his letters and the trust Sumter and Greene bestowed on him show Henderson to have been a truly professional soldier with good sense and sound judgment.

He also commanded at Blackstocks, Hammond's Store, and Cowpens. William Cunningham, who had him killed on the spot for having allegedly violated his parole. Maham was an officer in the 5th S.

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Regiment, who in the spring of acted with Marion. He was an intelligent and much respected officer. The Maham Tower he produced at the siege of Fort Watson in April became one of the standard methods used by the Americans in their siege approaches. Near the end of , he was taken prisoner while at his home in St.

McCall, as a result of previous ties he had with them in fighting the Indians, had close ties with Clark and Pickens, and often served under or alongside those commanders in the war with the British. Sadly, after having survived so many combats, in late April, or the first few days of May , he died of small pox -— or at least this is what secondary sources have said he died of.

Like his brother, Postell was taken at the surrender of Charleston and paroled. On March 2nd, , at Mud Lick, in Newberry County, he led a militia force of militia against some loyalists. There he was wounded and captured. Roebuck was taken prisoner to Ninety-Six, then Charleston, and was finally exchanged in August.

He scored a minor success at Bush River on May 1, It is not clear what actions he served with Sumter in, though it is likely that he was at most of the main engagements. Though, on the other hand, Cowpens being located in his area may have been sufficient justification for his presence in the battle. His mother, Jane Black Thomas, was a spirited woman, who in the summer of armed with a saber and helped by her two daughters, her son, and a skillful rifleman drove off large band of Tories intent on seizing an important cache of ammunition, which was being kept in her home.

Also, it was she who gave the whigs warning of the approach of the loyalists prior to First Cedar Spring. Hammond was another one of those ubiquitous figures in the fighting in the south. Such a record needs no embellishment from the historian. He ended the war, says Draper, as a colonel in the cavalry. Says Ramsay, "In the course of this cruel and desultory warfare, Major James was reduced from easy circumstances to poverty. All his movable property was carried off, and every house on his plantation burnt; but he bore up under these misfortunes, and devoted not only his possessions, but his life itself, for the good of his country.

Although Hammond had originally taken protection, in , he participated at the second siege of Augusta, and Ninety-Six. He was the uncle of Maj. Inman was active against the loyalist in Georgia during the fighting in It was in that battle also that he lost his life. McClure, along with Col. William Bratton, is one of the first names we come across in the fighting after Charleston. It was at Hanging Rock that McClure was mortally wounded. He was taken from there to Charlotte where, after lingering for two weeks, he died.

McCottry commanded the main detachment of Marion's riflemen. In the fighting in the swamps he and his men did signal service. Evidently in retaliation, Postell, in March, was taken prisoner while under a flag of truce. The excuse given was that he had violated the parole he received as one of the Charleston garrison.

Postell remained in captivity for the duration of the war. Rumph led a company of militia cavalry, or else mounted infantry from the Orangeburg area. His command was attacked and scattered at Fork of the Edisto on August 1st, Rather than being the roving field commander Clark was, he seems to have spent much of his time acting as a headquarters leader in Georgia, though all the more necessary as the state was then without a non-Royal government.

Though not so well known as Marion, Pickens, or Sumter, Clark deserves accolades as great. It has never ceased to impress this writer how often his name, or those of the men under his command have come up in the course of putting together this work. Although most histories only seem to mention him incidentally, the people knew Clark, and after the war treated him like a hero. His wife, Hannah Harrington Clark, in her own way, was as brave and tough as her husband, and has been written about as one of the heroines of the Revolution.

Dooly was Colonel in the Continental army, and was one of Georgia most important officers. But in August , he was, in the presence of his family, murdered by some tories, who had burst into his home in the dead of the night. He and his men fought alongside Pickens and Clark in the important victory over the loyalists at Kettle Creek, Georgia, in February Few was at Fishdam Ford and probably at Blackstocks as well. He had seniority over Clark, and commanded the Georgians at Long Canes in December , but showed poor leadership in that battle.

For most of the early part of , Few served as a representative for Georgia in Congress. Returning home in late July in , he participated in the re-establishment of the state government. In February he was made Pickens brigade Major when the latter took charge of the western North Carolina militia in the campaign leading up to Guilford Court House. Later he was at the second siege of Augusta. In May , he was made Lieut. In after years, Jackson became both Senator and Governor of Georgia.

He led the Georgians at Cowpens. This list does not include the American Regiments that served at Charleston, the Virginia campaign and Yorktown. Also more detailed information about these units is contained within the Calendar. They served at Camden where they suffered severe losses. By the end of October , what effectives remained, about 90, were combined with some of the Maryland regiment to form the Maryland Light Infantry Battalion. While it occasionally received a few replacements now and then, the company normally did not exceed 80 men.

By June , however, the Delaware regiment of southern army totaled rank and file. Although 85 recruits were sent from Delaware to Washington at Yorktown, Greene received no significant number of reinforcements or replacements from the state. Later that year it consisted of four companies. It was integrated with Col. At Camden were present the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, and 7th Maryland regiments. Made up of remnants of the 2nd, 4th, 6th, regiments, plus the Delaware company.

Informally, these battalions were thereafter known at the 1st and 2nd Maryland Regiments of , though these were designations of convenience and not formal regiments as such. The officers, for example, would continue to be listed in official records according to the regiments they originally belonged to. The two regiments together made up the Maryland Brigade, which was commanded briefly by Brig. William Smallwood, and then by Col. Out of a portion of this brigade, in the same month, was formed the Maryland Light Infantry Battalion. In the early part of , as replacements came in to Greene, the Light Battalion was disbanded.

Some sources say it was at this time that the Maryland brigade organized into two regiments. But what seems to have happened was that there may have been a second minor reorganization, and the new recruits were concentrated in the 2nd regiment. In a letter of May 4th, , Greene wrote to Gov. Not a recruit joined us from that state, and we are discharging her men daily, their time of service being expired.

In January , steps were taken for the formation of North Carolina Continental regiments to replace those lost at Charleston. Jethro Sumner was appointed by Greene the task of collecting, training and arming the units. It was not till after Guilford Court House, when the North Carolina assembly passed a law making deserters from the militia at that battle liable to military service, that Sumner was able to obtain the men he needed.

As they were collected and came in Sumner formed a detachment at a time, which he then sent on to Greene. The first under Maj. They initially numbered around , but due to desertions decreased to about , many of the draftees understandably protesting the forced service without being allowed what they felt was a fair hearing. By July, additional detachments had been formed such that in August Sumner was with Greene with a total of men.

These were formed into three regiments or battalions: What were left were with De Kalb for a brief time, returned to Virginia in July, and came back again to join the southern army after Camden. This group suffered much attrition from desertion, illness, and expired terms of service. Of this some ended up going home as well, but those that stayed were incorporated into the two newly created Virginia regiments which reinforced the army prior to Guilford Court House.

Initially there was some confusion as to how all the different Virginians were to be organized, which might help account for their lack of cohesion at Guilford Court House. While the troops act by detachment and the officers uncertain whether they will command the same men, they will not pay attention to the discipline of the troops which the service requires. John Green was forced to leave the army for health reasons, and Lieut. Richard Campbell was put in charge of the 1st. Hawes as well later became ill sometime before the end of May, and command of the 2nd was given to Major Smith Snead.

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