La Presquîle interdite : Initiation au Mont Athos (SPIRITUALITE) (French Edition)

Recensions

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Final r in the present of the infinitive of all the verbs. S preserves the hard sound in the middle of a word, when preceded or followed by a consonant, as in transe. Final s is always heard in as, atlas, argus, bibus. Though there is no s, in quatre, yet, before y eaux itis r ;n conversation, pronounced as if ending in that letter. When this letter is doubled, only one is heard, except in atticisme, attique, Atticus, battologie, guttural, and pit- toresque. V, v, has the same sound in French as in English.

The first sound of this letter ks is by far the most ge neral. The second sound gz takes place in all words begin ning with x or ex followed by a vowel, or the letter h. The third sound k is limited to words beginning with exce, exci, and exs. X takes the sound of sh only in Don Quixote. Z, z, is generally pronounced as rose. OP GENDER, Gender in all languages marks the distinction of sex,, and as there are only two of these, the French agree- ably to this view have but two genders, the masculine and feminine: The masculine gender expresses the male kind, as un homme, a man ; un lion, a lion.

The feminine gender denotes the female kind, as une femme, a woman ; une lionne, a lionness. The gender of nouns, in inanimate objects, is gene- rally expressed by their termination ; thus, final e mute is the distinctive mark of the feminine gender, every other final letter is the sign of the masculine. This would be an excellent rule, were it universal ; but this is far from being the case from the number of ex- ceptions, and it is with the intention of affording the learn- er a tolerable clue on this head, that we have here laid down the following concise rules, which will clear up some of the chief difficulties.

Of this table it is to be remarked, that the French word stands in the ruddle column, and its signification on the right hand and on the left. When il has the meaning which stands on the left, it is masculine 3 when that which stands to the right, it is feminine.

I God, his angels, cherubim and seraphim, are of masculine gender. Here the only difficulty re- spects substantives ending in e mute, all the rest be- ing of the masculine gender, with such exceptions a? In other cases, the diminutives follow the gender their sex indicates, as vu poulain, une pouliche, un cachet. J abattis, appentis, l iris,. V before a noun masculine or feminine lar. The wood ; the forest ; the houses ; the men ; the court bois m.

And when these prepositions are followed by a or an, thus: The palace of the king ; of the queen ; of the man ; palais m. Of my clothes; of thy handkerchief ; of his pocket: This suppression is called elision ; a, e, t, are the only vowels liable to be thus cut off, and even of the suppression of the last of these, only two instances oc- cur, viz. The a is suppressed only in la feminine, both when an article and a pronoun. But the bus 1 op of e occurs, not only in the mas- culine article and pronoun le, but also in many other monosyllables, such as je, me, te, se, de, ce, ne, que.

S for 1 si il arrivait si ils pouvaient parceque il? In the following French negative modes of speech, which answer to the accompanying nglish translation, the caret points out the place which the French verb must occupy, whenever it is not in the in- finitive mood. The addition of pas, or point, to the negative particle we, must not be considered as a second negation: I do not say , 1 have not said ; 1 have never seen ; I neve.

I see nothing ; has he never seen? The expressions, which are perfectly alike, are par- ticttlayly those that have the following terminations: S animal, cardinal, fatal, general, local, moral, natal original, principal, he. K artifice auspices edifice, justice, injustice, office, orifice, pr cipice solstice he. I plumage, rage, tec. The beauty of that fable; the horror of vice ; the utility f.

Substantive, or Noun, 4. Article, 5, Verb, 8. There are fwo sorts of substantives, the substantia? The proper name is that which is applied to a par- ticular person, or thing, as Cesar, Cesar ; la Tamise, he Thames. The substantive common is that which belongs to a whole class of objects. Abstract nouns are the names of qualities abstracted from their subjects, as, surface, ronitu?

In substantives, are to be considered Gender and Num- her. There are two numbers ; the singular and the plu- ral. The singular expresses one single object, as un homme. The plural announces more objects than one, as de? The flowers of the gardens ; fleur jardin he palaces of the kings ; palais roi vhe walnuts of their orchards: The Article is a small word prefixed to substantives, to determine the extent of their signification.

Y le before a mascu. The sun, the moon, and the stars, are the glory of soleil m. Poefrv, painting, and wu5ic, are sister arts. The article is subject to elision and contraction. SI The soul of man without cultivation is like e. The history of Spain is sometimes diamant m. France is separated from Italy by the variables art. Italie par Alps, and from Spain by the Pyrenees.

Contraction in grammar is the reducing of two syl- lables into one, and takes place, when the preposition a, or de precedes the article ; in which case, instead of putting 'le le before a masculine singular beginning with a consonant, or h aspirated, du must be employed: The top of the mountains, and the bottom of the vallies sommet m.

The warbling of birds. De tout le ru onde f of everybody. De tous les hommes, of all men. A tout le monde to every body. A tous les hommes, to all men. Be toutes les vertus, of all virtues. A toutes les maisons, to all houses. The hope of success strengthened the cause of entrance t. Fire of imagination, strengtli of mind, and art. We saw fermeh' f: The history of man under par tage m. Playfulness does not become all ages sage m. In French, the article always agrees in gender and number with the substantive to which it relates.

The men that study. Ignorance is the mother of er- ror, admiration, and prejudi- ces of every kind. Innocence of manners, sincerity, obedience, art. The plants of the gardens, the animals of the forests, the minerals plante jurdin m. Du, de la, de V, des, answering to the English partitive some expressed, or understood, have by way of ellipsis passed into habitual use. Je mange du pain. JI prend de la peine.

Paroles du Mont Athos - Nº 94

Nous mangeons du hachis. Vous prenez de Y humeur. Nous cueillons des pommes. Ils vendent des oranges. He takes some trouble. We eat some hash. She conceives a hatred. You have some friendship. You go into an ill humour. OPKe me some bread and butter. Nous have some girkms. Shall I offer you some chicken? Shall I avons cornichons pi. Vous offrirai-je poulet m. Vous help you to some fruit? Je prendrai volontiers broth. Pour me out some beer. There falls some hail. Have you any ink and Elle a' orgueil m. Put some oil and vinegar to the salad. Mettez huile, h m.

He has received some gold and Mangez pr. A word is known to be an adjective, when it can be properly joined with the word personne, or the word chose. In French the adjective takes the gender and number of the substantive to which it relates. This difference of gender and number is generally marked by the termi- nation. Whenever the adjective does not end in c mute, the e mute is added to form its feminine. Adjectives ending in -r change -x into s 2 and take e mute. This house is well situated. This pear Elle — Cette maison, f. She is tall and well formed.

This person is very unsteady. This road is not very safe. The door is not iagne f. Xhis room is dark. This street is too narrow. She has carnation lips. Sa memory will be immortal. His manners are natural. That is an original thought. Ce " des trompeur 2 pro- mises. He seduces by hisfawning manners. The following adjectives double the last consonant iu forming the feminine. The following adjectives form their feminine by doub ling the I in the masculine before a vowel.

The grass is very thick. That soup is very good, but too fat. It is a very silly history. It is in the cau f. It is a fine statue. The law is express upon nouveau mode f. He lives in a state of luxurious idleness, This wax — m. Is not very white. She is as fresh as a rose. The thing is public. That plant possesses a pernicious chose f. She is of a benevolent character, The avenging ijualitt t 1. This woman is jealous and deceit nous 1 — Jew 2.

His temper is mild. This colour is too retf. F very adjective forms its plural by the simple addition of s, as. This rule is without exception as it regards the feminine termination ; but the mascutoe 3ias the four following exceptions. Adjectives ending in -s or -. Polysyllables ending in -nt, according to the most general practice, drop the t in the plural masculine, as excellent, excellens ; but monosyllables retain it, as lent. The adjective tout, all, makes tous.

The two new operas de beau bijou m. This fruit is excellent. Those ladies are tired with walking. Yon voir 2 lei. The four cardinal points are the east. Grammarians commonly reckon three degrees of comparison ; the positive, the comparative, and the su- perlative. The positive is the adjective expressing the quality of an object, without any increase, or diminution, as beau, belle.

An ingenuous candour, an amiable simplicity and a le monde. The comparative of superiority is formed by putting plus, more, before the adjective, and que, than, after it. The comparative of inferiority is formed by prefix- ing moins, less, to the adjective, and adding que, than, after it. La violette est moins belle que la The violet is less beautiful than rose.

Shipwreck and death are less fatal than the pleasure art. Autumn is less varied than de art. The comparative of equality is formed by placing aus si, as, before the adjective, and que, as, after it. Pope's images are as perfect as his style is hai de Pope 2 art. OS aire, as scarce as true genius. The love of our neighbour — f. It is qs easy art. The three following adjectives, meilleur, better, pire, worse, moindre, less, are comparatives in themselves. As most beginners are apt to confound these comparative adjectives with the comparative adverbs,: Meilleur, better, is the comparative of lon r good, and is used instead of plus bon, which is never said, o'!

II se conduit bien, mais elle se He behaves icdl, lut. Il se portait mal, mais il est pis He vjas unwell, but he is tecra que jamais. Te parle peu, vous parlez encore I spiak little, you real: His reasoning is not better than yours. Yov Son raisonnement m. The remedy autre en hauteur f. Your horse is worse than mine. London is a very fine city. Dieu est infiniment heureux. God is supremely happy. That landscape is very diversified, very txlnisiie, and inf. The superlatii c is formed by prefixing the ar- ticle le to the comparatives meilleur, moindre, pire, and to the adverb- ; it is called relatrje.

London is the finest of m. Plus and the article are repeated before every adjective.

Monde syriaque (Le): Sur les routes d'un christianisme ignoré

La benne good mother- De beau. Dt belles p ro men e w a Iks. These hills are covered with trees loaded with coteau m. A pure stream rolls its limpid — m. Every thing interests the heart in this abode, -fleur f. Rule IL When the adjective relates to two substan- tives singular of the same gender, it must be put in the plural, and agree with them in gender. When the two substantives, to which the adjective relates, are of different genders, the adjective is to be put in the masculine plural. Ignorance and self-love arc — re!

Numbers are divided into five classes, viz. Un millier is very often employed for one thousand weight, but quintal is never used except in the sense ot dne hundred weight. The distributive numbers are those wiiich express the different parts of a whole: A pronoun is a word substituted in the place of a noun. There are several kinds of pronouns, as the personal. Personal Pronouns are used for the names of persons or things.

There are three persons: We have told the truth What were content do moi? Politeness has led to the use of the plural vous, instead of the singular tu: I was telling] lempjt 2 appris 1 art. How amiable you are! I il tu thou as-tu dit? Plural, fnous we irons nous? I vous you yiendrez-vous? II, le, ils, eux, are always masculine: All personal pronouns, when subjects, are placed before their verbs, except in interrogative sentences, and most of them likewise, when objects precede them, except in the imperative affirmative.

Hz was saying, to them , do you not know ant disait the property of merit is to excite envy? What has been par leurs exemple pi. Did they speak of them? Do you not see dit cut? With what pleasure she plays! The glory of the world passes away in an instant. He gives himself a great deal of trouble. Virtue is On doit rarement parler soi art, f. We must take upon ourselves the care de soi On doit prendre sur soi soin m. Y and en are always put before the verb, ex- cept with the imperative affirmative. They speak a great deal of ii. You like French On parle beaucoup aimes art. He has done f. These pronouns are adjectives, which denote the pos- session of things.

Of those that always agree with a noun expressed, some relate to one person, and others to several. C 1st mon, m. My principles, my love of retirement, my taste. His wit, his talents, his. Of the pronouns, which always agree with nouns un- derstood, some relate to one person, and others to several persons. Those which relate only to one person are: Le tien, lu tienne, les liens, les tiennes, thine 3d. The real use of these pronouns is to spare the repetition of the nouns, which have been expressed a lit- tle before.

Avtz-vous toujours votre che- Have you still your horse 1 I Ml? Is it your temper or hers, that hinders you from living well ce humeur f. Relative pronouns are those which relate to a pre- ceding noun, or pronoun, called tfie antecedent. In the phrase, V homme qui joue, the man who plays ; qui re- lates to the substantive homme ; nomme is then the an- tecedent to the pronoun relative qui.

Lequel is a compound of quel, and the article le, le. Vs, with which it coalesces in the following manner: Quoi, which sometimes supplies its place, is always governed by tt preposition. Que and quoi to things. Demonstrative pronouns are those which point, as ii —! C when without a noun, C qui esf-ce? This long restrained hatred brokr h asp. It was a grea' ment m. Indefinite pronouns are those which are of a vague and indeterminate; nature. They are of four sorts. Those that are never joined to a substantive. Those which are always joined to a substantive.

I certaines nouvelles, some news. Those ruhich are sometimes joined to a substantive, anc sometimes not. Of those which are followed by q,ue. The Verb is a word, the chief use of which is to ex press affirmation: In the phrase, la vertu est aimable, virtue is amiable. That concerning which we affirm, or deny a thing, is called the subject, and what is affirmed, or denied, is call- ed its attribute. In the two preceding sentences vertu and vice are subjects of the verb est, and aimable is the attribute affirmed respecting the one, and denied with re Rpect to the other.

There are in verbs two numbers, the singular and plu- al, and in each number three persons. The third is the person spoken of, known by il, I he, or elle, she, in the singular, and by Us, or elles, I they, in the plural ; as, il, or elle pense, he, or she; thinks ; ils, or elles pensent, they think. All substantives, either common, or proper, are of the third person, when not addressed, or spoken to. There are five moods, or modes of conjugating erbs. The indicative simply indicates and asserts a in a direct manner ; as, j'aime, I love ; il he loved.

S The subjunctive subjects a thing to what pre- cedes ; as vous voulez, qu'il aime, you wish that he may love ; que nGus aimions, that we may v love. There are three tenses, the present, which declares a thing now existing, or doing, as, je lis, I read ; the past, or preterit, denoting that the thing has been done, as, j'ai lu, I have read ; the future, denoting that the thing will be done, as, je lirai, I shall read. But these are subdivided, so that there are several preterit, and two future tenses.

There are five kinds of verbs, the active, passive, neu- ter, pronominal, and impersonal. The verb active is that which expresses an action , the object of which is either declared, or understood. The object of this action is called the regimen,or goverment of the verb active. The verb neuter, is that which has no direct regimen, as the verb active has.

Aller, to go ; marcher, to walk, are verbs neuter, because we cannot say, aller quel- qu'un, to go somebody ; marcher quelque chose, to walk something. Plaire to please, is likewise a verb neuter. H The impersonal verb is only used in the third person singular, with the pronoun il, and has no relation to any person or thing. Regu- lar verbs are those which are conjugated conformably to a general standard.

Irregular verbs are those which do not conform to the verb employed as a model ; and de- fective verbs are those which, in certain tenses, or per- sons, are not used. To conjugate a verb is to rehearse it with all its differ ont inflections. The trench have four conjugations, which are easily distinguished by the termination of the present of the in- finitive.

Thou hast had plaisir m. He has had patience. She has had beauty. We have or m. You have had friendship. They have had sensibility. They had lemons m. I had had apricots. Thou hadst had nectarine? She had had hazel-nuts. We had had noix noisette. You had had figs. They had had medlars. Thou hadst cherries prune cerise awberries, She had pine-apples. We had almonds fraise ajianas amande You had currants. They had raspberries, They har groseille m. We had had very ripe grapes. You had had exquisite 1.

They had had ready money. He will have ridiculous ideas. We shall have useless cares. You will have true end real inutile 2 soin m. They will have poignant griefs. She will have had charming m. We shall have had good pens. They will have had fine clothes. Present or the conditional. Thou should'st have pretly playthings. He shou'c joli joujou m. JOll Ji have immense treasures. They should have long con f. He would have de Jiad a. We should have had mort infiniment connaissance f.

Y ou would certainly tic occasion f. Aie, or aye Have Qhou Qu'il ait Let him have Ayons Let us have Ayez Have ye Qu'ils aient Let them have have had many advantages over him, They would havr 1 beaucoup de avantage sur lui had many enemies. Observe that, when the verb is followed by several substantives, the proper article and preposition must be epeated before each.

Let him have modesty, and more correct idea? Let her have more decency. Let them have manners. That he may havr donner lui elevated sentiments. That they may have more condescensior marine f. That you may have had a great neige f pluie f. Thai cabinet de toilette m. That thou might'st have a knife. That we might have a penknife, pencils, and gooa fourchette f. Rem The subjunctive, in French, is always preceded by. That you might have meuble, m. That I might have had friendship.

That he gant m. That you might have had warm friends. Vous n'aviez pas eu de puissans You had not had powerful amis, friends. Ils n'auront pas d'ennemis re- They will not have formidable doutables, enemies. I have no precious medals. We have no useless things. We have had no generosity. Thou hadst not a beautiful park. You had no parc m. He had had no fine houses. They had had no money. He had not argent m. They had no carpets.

Preterit an- habile jardinier m. Thou hadst had no complaisance. You had had no tlents. We shall have no uncommon prints. Thou shalt have had no consolation. They mauvais tableau ra. We should have chagrin m. Let him not have absurd sing. Let Us not have dangerous connexions. Have no such 1. Let them not have so whimsical a project. See likewise the remarks, page Had she honesty f Avons-nous eu de bon s conseils? Have we had good advice? Had you had prudence? Will he have money? Will she have had protectors? Have you aiguille f. Have we had convenient houses? Had they had extensive fields? Preterit definite — Had spacieux 3 champ m.

Shall we have good luck? Will bhe have had joy? Will they have had company? Present— Shouldst thou have happy heurevj moments? Should you have good wine ard nice cordials? Should they rare 2 m. In sentences of this form observe the different rules that are prefixed to the exercises on the verb, and in sentences simply interrogative, always place ne at the be- ginning of sentences, and pas, or point, after the person- al pronoun, whether in the simple, or compound tenses. Have I no books? N'avais-tu pas des amis?

Hadst thou no friends? Has she not a great deal of wit? N'avons-nous pas eu de bons Have we not acted fairly? N'aviez vous pas eu de nouvel- Had you not had new gowns? N'aura-t-il pas des ressources? Will he have no resources? Had they not inattentive children? Pluperfect — Had I not had other views? Had we not had autre vue? Had we not perfidious friends? Shall we not have had a good preacher? Would they not have more extensive know- 3 f.

Should they have had no rectitude? As interrogative and negative sentences will now be promiscuously intermixed, the scholar will observe, that the adverb, in the following exercises, is to be placed before the adjectives: Art not thou pleased aise de voir satisfait With thai honk! She has been faithful. You have been charitable. Were wc not too un- importun Jille paresseux in- tractable?

You were not quiet enough. Had his wife been sufficiently — 'pou se assez modest and reserved? Had you been envious and jealous? Wast thou discreet enough on that occasion? Was — discret 1 en — f. We were very unhappy. Were you — cesse fier i not too hasly? They were not much satisfied. Wilt thou always be restless, brutal, and midi inifuift.

Will your father be at home this evening? Will you always then be — 3 , done 2 1 capricious, obstinate, and particular? Thoi; wilt have been too distrustful. Will you not have been inconsiderate? Will- not the 1 indiscret judges have been just? I would not be so rash. Would not his son be ready in time?

Should we be pos m pi. Had it not been for your instructions, I should have. Would that man have been so malin ricaneur tellement destitute of common sense? Would not you have been more lfind and, si ridicule d9ux pl Ui indulgent: Do not be so lavish. Let us not be covetou? Do not be thoughtless. It has already been observed, that before the sub- ive can form a complete sense, it must be pre ceded by another verb. For the sake of brevity, therefore, complete sentences will only be given on the present tense. This remark applies alike to the fou? Is it possible I can be so credulous?

They wish us to be more assiduous. It is feared they may s'attend timide. That she bouffi de should have been so fickle. That you should have been so avaricious. Imperfect That I should not be humane and generous. That she might not be so soigneux. That we might be victorious. That you might not be so stern. That they might not be so cruel. In verbs ending in -get, the e is preserved in those tenses where g ,s followed by the vowels a, or o, in order to preserve to this letter its soft sound: In verbs ending in -cer, or the same reason, a cedilla is put under c, when followed by a, or o ; as.

I 1 mi-ht have bcon move studious. Thai t j loll ,,. All the regular verbs of the First Conjugation adopt the terminations of the verb- parler ; Exam. I The remarks prefixed to the exercises on the 3 verb avoir, when de is to be placed between the f verb and the substantive, ought to be attended to. Do I prefer pleasure to my duty? We sincerely love peace and avis m. I have given up my favour]'.

We have spoken a long while of your adventure. I hoir hall dresses? He ex redouter — f. We did not protect accuser ami f. You despised a vain erudition. Had his father rejected these advantageous — f. We had not long listened to the singing of the offre f. Had you already studied geography and history 1 oiseau m.

Thou forgottest an pr. Did you visit the grotto art. They did not generously forgive their bois m. Had not Alexander soon surmounted all obstacles? Alexandre surmonter tous art. We had not soon enough shut the shutters, and let down the tot 2 assez 1 fermer volet baisser curtains.

Had you not quickly dined? In the twinkling rideau promptement diner. By such conduct, will you i tel 2 1 conduite f. Will they astonish their he pron. Thou would'st not a 1 nombre m. This remark holds good for every verb. They would not unravel the clue of atroce 2 complot m.

Would'st thou not have played? Would he not have campagne f. You would have awakened orgueil m. Would those merchants have paid their debts? That he would adorn his speeches with the grace? That she would remain in her boudoir. That we shoujd so hastily condemn the world. That thou would'st have added nothing to. That they may not have taken advan l ixj. That imiter exemple m. That you pit dm. That they would loi f. That I should not have burnt that work. That he should have perfected his natural qualities. That we might not have gained the victoiy. That they would have struck — ter —m.

V to belong coni-enir to contain det-tmr to detain entret-entr to ketp up maint- cuir to me obtenir to obtain ret-e? I choose this picture. I feel alt choisir tableau m. Do we not set off ; for the country? Do you not tell a lie? I served my friends warmly. He complied at last entretenir de beau promesse f. Did you not belie dormir alors? Did thf — 2 pays m. I softened my father by my submission. Thou did'st not come again pressentir — 2 f. He did not succeed through comme le. Only tin' first person of those tenses, which are invari- ably conjugated afike, will now be given, the scholar will easih v the rest.

Did not Alexander sully his glory by his pride? We never betrayed ville f. Did you not agree to trust — 2 — m. They served their country with courage. Did the moi pays — ancient philosophers enjoy great consideration? Shall I not obtain this of you? He will not sleep quietly. Will enricher pays industrie not our friends offer us their assistance? I should stiU cherish life.

Places by cover

Could'st thou soften that flinty heart ' — 2 — f. Would men always pressentir malheur art. Shudder with horror and terror. Soutenir Ihy character in good and bad fortune. Let us not divulge our secret. That I may be before-hand with such dangerous f. I will hot have thee go out this morning. That he I veux que In sub-1 malin m may not enjoy his glory.

That we may become just, honest, and virtuous. That you may punish the guilty. That you may return coupable pi. That they may establish wise couvert de laurier m. That they may agree about the conditions. This conjugation contains only seven regular verbs, which are: Percevoir is a law erra, and apercevoir is often reflected. In verbs ending in -cevoir, the c, to pre- serve the soft sound of that letter, takes a cedilla, when followed by o, or u.

That I might not bring about my design?. That he might not bear mentir dt dentin prfmi. Inat we might disobey the Jaw?. Though there is no s in quatre, yet, before yeux, it is, in conversation, pronounced as if ending in that letter. Thus there is a difference in pronunciation between these phrases: Examples of t hard before vowels and diphthongs.

To complete this second list, observe that t always takes the sound of c. In all adjectives ending in -tial, -tiel, -tient, -tieux, and their derivatives ; — 2dly. In all the inflexions of the two verbs quoted, balbuiier, and initier; — 3dly. In several hundred words ending in tion, when tion is not immediately preceded by an s, or an x j and finally, in the following additional list of words, end- ing in -tie and -tien, viz.

T final is always sounded in apt, rapt, fat, malt, mat, pat, opiat, exeat, transeat, vivat, spalt, spath, Goliath, net, fret, facet, Thibet, aconit, deficit, granit, introit, preterit, transit, subit, dot, Astaroth, azimut, brut, corn- put, chut, bismuth, indult, luth, lut, occiput, sinciput, and both 5 and t are articulated in Le Christ, Vest, east, Vouest, Brest, lest, test, Pest, toast, and entre le zist et le zest ; but neither of these letters is heard in Jesus Christ, which is pronounced Jesu Cri.

L'assaut a ete terrible. Tis always silent in the conjunction et, pronounced e, therefore to avoid what is called hiatus in French verse, this word is never placed before a vowel. For words ending in ct, see page When this letter is doubled, only one is heard, except in atticisme, altique, Atticus, battologie, guttural, and pittoresque. Xa-vi-er Xe-no-phon ex-il ex-or-de ex-u-be-ran-ce Xaverius Xenophon exile exordium exuberance ex-a-men ex-au-cer ex-haus-ser ex-hi-ber ex-hu-mer examination to hear fa- vourably to raise to produce to disinter EXAMPLES Of the third sound, k.

The first sound of this letter ks is by far the most ge- neral. The second sound gz takes place in all words begin- ning- with x or ex followed by a vowel, or the letter h, as le Xanthe, Xenocrates, Ximenes, exorable, and several others, with those already mentioned in the second exem- plification. The third sound k is limited to words beginning with exce, ezci, and exs.

The fourth sound ss is only found in the above quota- tions, and in six and dix when unaccompanied by sub- stantives, as in de seize otez six, reste dix, where six and dix are pronounced with the hissing sound of ss in the English word bliss. Final x is generally pronounced as z, when the next word begins with a vowel or h mute, otherwise it is si- lent, as II est heureux aupres de vous, et malheureux loin de vous: X takes the sound of sh only in Don Quixote, generally pronounced Don Kishot, or rather ghishot.

Z, z, is generally pronounced as z in zone, or s in rose. Gender in all languages marks the distinction of sex, and as there are only two of these, the French agreeably to this view have but two genders, the masculine and feminine: The masculine gender expresses the male kind, as un homme, a man ; un lion, a lion. The feminine gender denotes the female kind, as une femme, a woman ; une lionne, a lioness. The gender of nouns, in inanimate objects, is gene- rally expressed by their termination ; thus, final e mute is the distinctive mark of the feminine gender, every other final letter is the sign of the masculine.

This would be an excellent rule, were it universal ; but this is far from being the case from the number of excep- tions, and it is with the intention of affording the learner a tolerable clue on this head, that we have here laid down the following concise rules, which will clear up some of the chief difficulties. Of this table it is to be remarked, that the French word stands in the middle column, and its signification on the right, hand and on the left.

When it has the meaning which stands on the left, it is masculine ; when that which stands to the right, it is fenrnine. God, his angels, cherubim and seraphim, are ol masculine gender. All terms seeming to constitute an appellation, and all proper names of men and women are of the gender of the sex to which they respectively belong, as are likewise all names of animals, when the male is distinguished from the female by a different de- nomination ; but when the same name is used for both male and female, as un elephant, un zebre, une panthere, un vautour, un cygne, une caille, une per- drix, un barbeau, une truite, un congre, its gender must then, like that of any inanimate object, be de- termined by its termination.

Here the only dif- ficulty respects substantives ending in e mute, all I. In other cases, the diminutives follow the gender their sex indicates, as un poulain, une pouliche, un cochet, une poulette. Antique is feminine, for the same reason ; the word medaille, or statue, ap- pearing to be understood. All names of states, empires, kingdoms, and pro- vinces, are of the gender which their terminations indicate ; except le Ben gale, le Mexique, le Pelopo- nese, le Maine, le Perche, le Rouergue, le Bigorre, le Tallage, la Franche-comte, and perhaps a few more.

There are a great many proper names of females, which, though they may not have the feminine termination, are of that gender, as the learner, from their nature, will easily compre- hend: J tabac a fume r tobacco conserves, pi. The learner is to render the English definite article le before a noun masculine ""I la before a nonn feminine I in the singu- V before a noun masculine or feminine j lar. Tlie wood; the forest; the houses; the men ; the court ; bois m.

He will render the English prepositions? And when these prepositions are followed by a or an, thus: Du pare de'la riyjfcre rde Pe'sprit des carosses au pare a la riviere of the park of the river of the -mind of the coaches to the park to the river a 1' esprit aux carossea d'un jour d'une nuit a un jour a une nuit to the mind to the coaches of a day of a night to a day to a night of the EXERCISES. The palace of the king ; of the queen ; of the man ; palais m. These same prepositions, when followed by the possessive pro- nouns, my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, and their, will be both ren- dered thus: Of my clothes; of thy handkerchief; of his pocket: This suppression is called elision ; a, e, i, are the only vowels liable to Jbe thus cut off, and even of the suppression of the last of these, only two instances oc- cur, viz.

The a is suppressed only in la feminine, both when an article and a pronoun. In the following French negative modes of speech, which answer to the accompanying English translation, the caret points out the place which the French verb must occupy, whenever it is not in the in- finitive mood. P as t 1 ne point never ne jamais nothing ne"rien nobody ne'personne not a jot ne A goutte: The addition of pas. For in such cases, pas, point, goutte, are mere restrictive terms, nearly resembling the English words, jot, bit, tittle, sometimes added to not, with this difference, that pas and point in French have nothing trivial in them.

There are many words which are alike in both lan- guages, and others which differ only in their termina- tion. The expressions, which are perfectly alike, are parti cularly those that have the following terminations: Many other English words require only the change of termination, in the following manner: Adjectives in energy military glory clemency beauty C -eux U I energie militaire gloire clemence beaute dangereux faveur erreur clandestin expressif furie perfidie S-euse -ive -ine favour error clandestine expressive fury — perfidy EXERCISE.

The beauty of that fable ; f. Agression ; a famous general ; his constant generosity ; he is m. There are, in French, nine sorts of words, or parts of speech, namely, 1. Substantive, or Noun, 4. The proper name is that which is applied to a parti- cular person, or thing, as Cesar, Cesar ; la Tamise, the Thames. The substantive common is that which belongs to a whole class of objects. Of these nouns, some are collective, and others ab- stract.

Collectives express either a whole mass, as une armee, an army: In substantives, are to be considered Gender and Number. There are only two genders, the masculine and femi- nine. There are two numbers ; the singular and the plural. The singular expresses one single object, as un homme, un livre. The plural announces more objects than one, as des homines, des livres. The singular is ge- nerally changed into a plural, by adding an s, Singular.

Singular, le fils, la voix, le nez. These six are irregular Singular. The Article is a small word prefixed to substantives, to determine the extent of their signification. The sun, the moon, and the stars, are iAe glory of soleil m. Poetry, painting, and mwic, are sister arts. The article is subject to elision and contraction. Elision of the article is the omitting of the e in Ze, or the a in la, when these articles precede a noun begin- ning with a vowel, or h mute. The soul of man - without cultivation is like a time f. The history of Spain is sometimes diamant m.

Espagne est quelquefois very interesting. Look at the amaranth and the anemone ; tres-intcressante. Honesty, inno- partage m. Summer, autumn, and winter, tres-estimes art. France is separated from Italy by the variables art. Italie par Alps, and from Spain by the Pyrenees. Contraction in grammar is the reducing of two syl- lables into one, and takes place, when the preposition a, or de, precedes the article ; in which case, instead of putting de le before a masculine singular, beginning with a consonant, or h aspirated, du must be employed ; instead of d le, au must be used ; and before the plural substantives of both genders, de les is changed into des, and-4 les into aux.

The -top of the mountains, and the bottom of the vallies sommel m. Silk is soft to the touch. The egalement agreables a'rt. A man given to pleasure was never a great man. The warbling of birds II obcit a ordres gazouillement m. De and a are never contracted with la, before a femi- nine substantive singular beginning with a consonant. De la reine of the queen a, la reine to the queen Nor are de and d contracted with le or la, before any substantive singular, beginning with a vowel, or A mute, but then the article suffers elision. De V esprit of the mind de Vhomme of man A V esprit to the mind a Vhomme to man De fame of the soul a I'dme to the soul De Vhistoire of the history a Vhistorie to the history Contraction likewise does not tate place, when the adjective tout, all, every, intervenes between de, or d, and the article.

De tout le monde of every body. De tous les hommes, of all men. A tout le monde, to every body. A tous les hommes, to all men. De toutes les vertus, of all virtues. A toutes les maisons, to all houses. The hope of success strengthened the cause of esperance f.

Une Transeuropéenne

Fire of imagirision, strength of mind, and art. We saw fermelc f. Good cultivation is that which contributes lupte f. Plus ou moms de peine is the lot of every body. The history of man under partage m. Playfulness does not become all ages sage m. In French, the article always agrees in gender and number with the substantive to which it relates. Le livre que je cherche, The book which I am looking for.

The woman whom I see.

Les hommes qui etudient, The men that study. The father, mother, brothers, sisters, pere m. What we value is heaJth, frugality, elaient presens. Ce que nous eslimons, c'est art. U esprit, les graces, 11 la beaute Wit, grace, and beauty, capti- nous captivent. Je vis hier le roi, la reine, et les I saw yesterday the king, queen, princes. Uignorance est la mere de Yer- Ignorance is thug mother of er- reur, de I 'admiration, et des ror, admiration, and prejudi- prtventions de toute espece.

The plants of the gardens, the animals of the forests, the minerals - plante jar din m. The lily is the emblem of — sur ame pi. Du, de la, de V, des, answering to the English partitive some expressed, or understood, have by way of ellipsis passed into habitual use. Je mange du pain.

II prend de la peine. He takes some trouble. Nous mangeons du hachis. Elk concoit de la harne. Vous avez de Yamiiie. Nous cueillons des pommes. You go into an ill hhmoui We gather apples. Give me some bread and butter. Offer him some donnez moi pain joi. Nous have some girkins.

Fiws offrirai-je poulet m. Je prendrai volontiers broth. Bring me some bread. Pour me out some beer. Put in some sugar Buvez vin m. I hear some noise. There falls some hail. She has some pride. Have you any ink and Elle a orgueil m. Put some oil, and vinegar to the salad. He has received some gold and Mangez pr. The adjective is a word, which is added to a substan- tive to express its quality, as, bon pere good father bonne mere goodmotlier beau livre fine book belle image fine image These words bon, bonne, beau, belle, are adjectives, as they express the qualities of pere, mere, livre, image.

A word is known to be an adjective, when it can be properly joined with the word personne, or the word chose. Thus, habile, skilful, and agreable, agreeable, are adjec- tives, because we can say personne habile, skilful person ; chose agreable, agreeable thing. In French the adjective takes the gender and number of the substantive to which it relates. This difference of gender and number is generally marked by the termi- nation. All adjectives ending in the singular in e mute, are of both genders.

Un homme aimable, Uhefemme aimable, Rule II. Whenever the adjective does not end in e mute, the e mute is added to form its feminine. Adjectives in -el, -eil, -ien, -on, and -et, to form their feminine double their last consonant and take e mute. Adjectives ending in -x change -x into s, and take e mute. Adjectives, or rather substantives, ending in -eur, derived from verbs, generally change the r into s, and take e mute ; but several, mostly of Latin origin, require -eur to be changed into -rice, in others -eur is transformed into -eresse, and about twelve, as, anterieur, citerieur, exterieur, interieur, inferieur, meilleur, mineur, majeur, posterieur, superieur, ulterieur, prieur, take only an e mute, and follow the Second Rule.

This house is well situated. This pear Elle — Cette maison, f. Men situe pcire f. She is tall and well formed. The story is tropmur. This person is very unsteady. This moun- tres-amusant personne f. This road is not very safe. The door is not tagne f. This room is dark. This street is too narrow. She has carnation lips. Sa memory will be immortal. His manners are natural. That is an original thought. They are delusive pro- ctoffe f. Ce destrompeur2 pro- mises. He seduces by his fawning manners. The following adjectives double the last consonant m forming the feminine.

The following adjectives form their feminine by doub- ling the I in the masculine before a vowel. The grass is very thick. That soup is very good, but too fat. There is no truth in all that. It is a very silly history. It is in the eau f. It is a fine statue. The law is express upon nouveau mode f. He lives in a state of luxurious idleness. This wax — m. She is as fresh as a rose. His answer is a mere evasion. The thing is public. That plant possesses a pernicious chose f. She is of a benevolent character. The avenging qualite f.

He extended to foudref. This woman is jealous and deceit- nous 1 — teur 2. His temper is mild. This colour is too red. These old Son humeur f. Every adjective forms its plural by the simple addition of s, as, bon, bons, bonne, bonnes, poll, polls, polie, polies. This rule is without exception as it regards the feminine termination; but the masculine has the four following exceptions.

Adjectives ending in -s or -x, do not change their termination in the plural masculine, as gros, gras, kideux. Those ending in -au, take x in the plural, as beau, beaux, nouveau, nouveaux. Some adjectives in -al, change this termination into aux, as, egal, equal, egaux ; general, generaux ; but most of these have no plural masculine, as amical, austral, boreal, canonial, conjugal, diametral, fatal, filial, final, frugal jovial, lustral, matinal, naval, pasto- ral, pectoral, special, venal, and some others.

Polysyllables ending in -nt, according to the most general practice, drop the t in the plural masculine, as excellent, excellens ; but monosyllables retain it, as lent, slow, lents. The adjective tout, all, makes tons. They are envious and jealous. Owls are frightful birds. Voild are some beautiful jewels. The two new operas de beau bijou m. Men are only equal in the ont reussi art. This fruit is excellent. His proficiency — ble — m. Those ladies are tired with walking. You voir 2 lei. Vous have powerful enemies, but their efforts will be vain avez de ennemim. The four cardinal points are the east.

Grammarians commonly reckon three degrees of comparison ; the positive, the comparative, and the su- perlative. The positive is the adjective expressing the quality of an object, without any increase, or diminution, as beau, belle. A child gentle, amiable, and docile, is beloved by every enfant m. An ingenuous candour, an amiable simplicity, and a le monde. The piquant 2 naivete f. The comparative is so called, because it draws a com- parison between two or many objects.

When two things are compared, the one is either superior, inferior, or equal to the other; hence three sorts of comparison, that of superiority, inferiority, and equality. The adverbs plus, moins, and aussi, which mark these three kinds of comparison, are to be repeat- ed before every adjective, when several are joined to the same substantive, and are followed by the conjunction que, rendered in English by than or as, The comparative of superiority is formed by putting plus, more, before the adjective, and que, than, after it.

La rose est plus belle que la via- The rose is more beautiful than lette. The republic of Athens was more illustrious than that republique f. Athenes a ete illustre celle of Lacedemon. Homer was perhaps a greater genius Lacedevione. Homere etait peut-etre grand genie m.

Milton appears to me more sublime 3 gout m. The comparative of inferiority is formed by prefix- ing moins, less, to the adjective, and adding que, than, after it. La violette est moins belle que la The violet is less beautiful than rose. Shipwreck and death are less fatal than the pleasures art. The violet is less brilliant to the qui attaquent art. II veritable 2 cmbleme m, 1. Autumn is less varied than de art. The comparative of equality is formed by placing awssz, as, before the adjective, and que, as, after it.

La tulipe est aussi belle que la The tulip is as beautiful as the rose. Pope's images are as perfect as his style is har- de Pope 2 art. Delicacy of taste is a gift of na- art. The love of our neighbour — f. It is as easy art. The three following adjectives, meilleur, better, pire, worse, moindre, less, are comparatives in themselves.

As most beginners are apt to confound these comparative adjectives with the comparative adverbs, mieux, pis, and moins, because they are generally ren- dered by the same English words, better, worse, and less, it may be advisable to subjoin here these comparative adverbs with their positives, that the difference of mean- ing may serve as a distinction. Meilleur, better, is the comparative of bon, good, and is used instead of plus bon, which is never said. Pire signifies plus mauvais, worse, or more wick- ed, and is used instead of this. Moindre means plus petit, less, or smaller, and is used instead of these terms.

Moins is the comparative of peu, little, and is used for plus peu, which is never heard. Ce fruit-la est bon, mais celui- That fruit is good, but this isbet- ci est meilleur. Sa condition est mauvaise, mais His condition is bad, but it has elle a ete pire. H se conduit bien, mais elle se He behaves well, but she behaves condait encore mieux. II se portait mal, mais il est pis He was unwell, but he is worse que jamais.

Jeparlepeu,vousparlez encore 1 speak little, you speak stUl moins. His reasoning is not better than yours. Your style is Son raisonnement m. The thickness of debeaucoup celui son epaisseuri. This column mur m. The remedy autre en hauteur f. Your horse is worse than mine. The adjective is in the superlative degree, when it expresses the quality in a very high, or in its highest state: The superlative absolute is formed by putting ires, fort, bien, very, before the adjective ; it is called abso- lute, because it does not express any relation to other objects. Londres est une tres-belle ville.

London is a very fine city. The adverbs extremement, extremely, infi- niment, infinitely, are likewise marks of the superlative absolute. Cet homme est extremement so- That man is extremely learn- vant. Dieu est injlniment heureux. God is supremely happy. That landscape is very diversified, very extensive, and infi- paysage m.

The Alps are very high and agr cable de tout cote m. The style of Fenelon is very rich, and very escarpe. The superlative relative is formed by prefixing the article le to the comparatives meilleur, moindre, pire, and to the adverbs plus and moins ; it is called relative, as it expresses a relation to other objects.

Londres est la plus belle des villes. London is the finest of cities. Je prefere une maison de cam- I prefer a country-house to the pagne au plus beau palais. Plus and moins, with the article, are repeated before every adjective. The most beautiful comparison, that there is perhaps in comparaison f. The most able men are dans son Essai sur art. The most ancient and most toujours vertueux f. The least excusable of all errors is du soleil m. The adjective always agrees in gender and number with the substantive to which it relates.

Le bon pere, The good father. La bonne mere, The good mother De beaux jar dins, Fine gardens. De belles promenades, Fine walks. These hills are covered with trees loaded with coteau m. A pure stream rolls its limpid — m. Every thing interests the heart in this abode, fleur f. Fuyez, — dere 2 jeunesse f. When the adjective relates to two substan- tives singular of the same gender, it must be put in the plural, and agree with them in gender.

Le roi et le berger sont egaux The king and the shepherd are aprcs la mort, equal after death.

Uprightness and piety are much esteemed, even by art. A man in the most elevated, mechant pi. Dieu — — celebrated among the nations of Asia. When the two substantives, to which the adjective relates, are of different genders, the adjective is to be put in the masculine plural. Mon pere el ma mere sont con- My father and mother are con- fers, tented. Ignorance and self-love are — rel art.

My sister and brother were very presomptueux f. Numbers are divided into five classes, viz. The formation of the ordinal number from the cardinal does not require any explanation, except that -unieme is only found in compound numbers, where premier and second are inadmissible. Un millier is very often employed for one thousand weight, but quintal is never used except in the sense of one hundred weight.

The distributive numbers are those which express the different parts of a whole: A pronoun is a word substituted in the place of a noun. There are several kinds of pronouns, as the personal, possessive, relative, absolute, demonstrative, and indefi- nite. Personal Pronouns are used for the names of persons, or things. There are three persons: In general, je and me are put before the verb ; moi after it: I cast my eyes upon the objects which surrounded me, portai vue f.

We have told the truth. What were avons dit verite f. Politeness has led to the use of the plural vous, instead of the singular tu: Thou art greater than I ; and from thee I have at once es rnoi toi ai en meme 2 learnt humility and wisdom. I was telling temps 3 appris 1 art. You have shown us great talents; when will you show avez 2 montre 3 1 de — m. How amiable yousnel How good you are 1 de f. Que 3 1 etes2 3 12 to have thought of us! It was said of you the other day, de vous etre occupe On disait autre jour m.

Plural, nous we irons-rams 1 shall we go? II, le, ils, eux, are always masculine: All personal pronouns, when subjects, are placed be- fore their verbs, except in interrogative sentences, and most of them likewise, when objects precede them, ex- cept in the imperative affirmative. But the objective eux, elles, lui for le, and moi, toi, soi, with one exception of this last, in soi disant, styling himself, are invariably placed after the verbs by which they are governed.

He loved them, because they were mild, attentive, and aiviait m. He was saying to them, do you not know reconnaissant. She que propre m. They make us love virtue, more celle 2 m. What has been par leurs exemple pi. Did they speak of them? Do you not see dit eux? With what pleasure she plays! Se is placed before a verb, and soi, after a preposition, and sometimes after a verb. The glory of the world passes away in an instant. He gives himself a great deal of trouble.

Virtue is On doit rarement parler soi art. Enfor de lui of him d'elle of her d'eux of them d'elles of them de cela of that d'ici hence de la thence cet homme vous plait, vous en parlez sou- ' vent ]e ne crois pas cette femme sincere, je m' en mefie ces fruits parais- sent bons, j'en mangerais vo-' lontiers 'voila de belles oranges, vou- lez-vous m'en' donner 1 on ne ma trompe, suis sur pas il arriva ici, comme yen- partais vous allez a Pa- ris, et monsi- eur en vient that man pleases you, you speak of him often I do not believe that woman sin- cere, I distrust her 'these fruits look good, I should like to eat some of them.

J experienced that loss, when I least thought of it. It is a fine place, I intend to settle there. Y and en are always put before the verb, except with the imperative affirmative. They speak a great deal of it. You like French On parle beaucoup aimez art. Frangais'i authors, you are always speaking of them. He has done f. These pronouns are adjectives, which denote the pos- sessions of things.

Works (135)

When we say, mon habit, my coat ; voire maison, your house; son jardin, his or her gar- den j it is the same as saying - V habit qui est a moi, the coat which helongs to me ; la maison qui est a vous, the house which belongs to you ; le jardin qui est a lui, or d elle, the garden which belongs to him or to her. Of these pronominal adjectives, some always agree with a noun expressed, and the others with a noUn under- stood ; hence there are two sorts of possessive pronouns. Of those that always agree with a noun expressed, some relate to one person, and others to several.

C 1st mon, m. C 1st not re, m. These possessive pronouns in French always agree in gender and number with the object possessed, and not with the possessor, as in English, for which rea- son they must be repeated before every noun. Mon fere, ma mere, et mes My father, mother, and bro- freres, sont a la co. Mon cousin est alle consoler sa My cousin is gone to visit and sceur, qui a perdu son fils. Ill Mon, ton, son, are also used before a noun feminine, when beginning with a vowel, or h mute; thus, mon dme, my soul ; ton humeur, thy humour ; son amitie, his friendship ; must be said instead of ma dme, ta humeur, sa amitie..

My principles, my love of retirement, my taste — pe goiit m. His wit, his talents, his honesty, art. I see nothing that can be cen- art. Their taste for the fantastical, the prendre dans conduite f. Of the pronouns, which always agree with nouns un- derstood, some relate to one person, and others to several persons. Those which relate only to one person are: Le mien, la mienne, les miens, les miennes, mine 2d. Le tien, la tienne, les tiens, les tiennes, thine 3d. Le sim, la sienne. Those which relate to several persons are: JLe notre, la notre, les nbtres, ours 2d.

Le voire, la votre, les vbtres, yours 3d. Le leur, la leur, les leurs, theirs N. The real use of these pronouns is to spare the repetition of the nouns, which have been expressed a little before. Avez-vous toujours votre che- Have you still your horse 1 I val?

Is it your temper or hers, that hinders you from living well ce humeur f. If my tres-rare ce moyen ne reussisse pas Si friends had served me with the same zeal as yours, it avaient servi meme-zcle m. All the pictures which we ete de de glace. We know perfectly well what afe your etatm. You ne tarderiez pas a donner leur — f. When through politeness vous is used for tu, then votre, vos, must take the place of ton, ta, tes, and le vdtre, la votre, les votres, be used for le tien, la tienne, les tiens, les tiennes.

Que vous ressemblez peu a voes How little you resemble your ancetres! Quand vous aurez entendu When you have heard our nos raisons, nous ecouterons les reasons, we will listen to yours, votres. Relative pronouns are those which relate to a prece- ding noun, or pronoun, called the antecedent. In the phrase, Vhomme qui joue, the man who plays ; qui re- lates to the substantive liomme ; Vhomme is then the an- tecedent to the pronoun relative qui.

Lequel is a compound of quel, and the article le, la, les, with which it coalesces in the following manner: Quoi, which sometimes supplies its place, is always governed by a preposition. Pronouns absolute are those which have no relation to an antecedent. They are the five following: Qui Que Quoi who whom whom what what what what je vous dirai qui Va fait vouspouvez consulter qui vous voudrez qui consulterez- vousl il Tie sait que resou- dre que ferez-vous? Ul y I will tell you who has done it you may consult whom you please whom will you con- sult 7? Que and quoi to things.

Demonstrative pronouns are those which point, as were, to the objects spoken of. Nothing is so opposite to that true eloquence, the office ne 2 Hen 1 oppose veritable — f. TAw long restrained hatred broke h asp. Jut malheureux — f. It was a great ment m. Indefinite pronouns are those which are of a vague and indeterminate nature. They are of four sorts. Those that are never joined to a substantive. Autrui T other people! It is thought that this news is true. Persia, and art now at Paris. One cannot read Perse f. Those which are always joined to a substantive.

Those which are sometimes joined to a substantive, and sometimes not. C tout savant qu'il est, however learned I he may be. The Verb is a word, the chief use of which is to ex- press affirmation: In the phrase la vertu est aimable, virtue is amiable, it is affirmed that the quality aimable, belongs to la ver- tu ; likewise in this sentence, le vice ri est pas aimable, vice is not amiable, it is affirmed that the quality aima- ble, docs not belong to le vice ; the word est expresses this affirmation.

That concerning which we affirm, or deny a thing, is called the subject, and what is affirmed, or denied, is called its attribute. In the two preceding sentences, vertu and vice are subjects of the verb est, and aimable is the attribute affirmed respecting the one, and denied with respect to the other. The third is the person spoken of, known by il, he, or elle, she, in the singular, and by Us, or elles, they, in the plural ; as, il, or elle pense, he, or she thinks ; Us, or elles pensent, they think.

All substantives, either common, or proper, are of the third person, when not addressed, or spoken to. There are five moods, or modes of conjugating verbs. The conditional affirms a thing with a condition, as, f ai? There are three tenses, the present, which declares a thing now existing, or doing, as, je lis, I read ; the past, or preterit, denoting that the thing has heen done, as, fai lu, I have read; the future, denoting that the thing will be done, as, je lirai, I shall read.

But these are subdivided, so that there are several preterit, and two future tenses. There are five kinds of verbs, the active, passive, neu- ter, 'pronominal, and impersonal. The verb active is that which expresses an action, the object of which is either declared, or understood. Aimer, to love, is a verb active, as it expresses an action, the ob- ject of which may be quelqrfun, some person, or quelque chose, some thing ; as, aimer Dieu, to love God ; aimer V etude, to love study. The object of this action is called the regimen, or government of the verb active. In the French language, the passive verbs are sup- plied by the verb etre, as they are in English by the verb to be, and the participle past of the verb active followed by the preposition de, or par, the subject and regimen of the verb active being reversed.

Thus, to change the verbs from active to passive in these sentences, mon pere m! Alter, to go ; marcher, to walk, are verbs neuter, because we cannot say, alter quel- qrfun, to go somebody ; marcher quelque chose, to walk something. Plaire, to please, is likewise a verb neuter, as we cannot say in French plaire quelqu! The pronominal verb active, when the action of the verb falls upon the subject, as, je me fiatte, I natter myself; il se loue, he praises himself. The pronominal verb neuter, which indicates only a state, a disposition of the subject, as, se repen- tir, to repent, se desister, to desist, ienfuir, to run away.

The reciprocal verb expresses a reciprocity of action between two or more subjects, and conse- quently has no singular: The pronominal verb impersonal is only used in the third person singular. Active verbs frequently assume this form, in a passive sense, for the sake of brevity and energy ; as, il se bdtit, there is build- ing ; il se faisait, there was doing ; il se conclut, there was concluded; il Jest dit, it has been said; il se donnera une grande bataille, a great battle will be fought.

The impersonal verb is only used in the third person singular, with the pronoun il, and has no relation to any person or thing. Neiger, to snow, is an impersonal verb, as it cannot be applied to any person or thing ; il neige, it snows, il neigeait, it did snow. Regu- lar verbs are those which are conjugated conformably to a general standard. Irregular verbs are those which do not conform to the verb employed as a model ; and de- fective verbs are those which, in certain tenses or per- sons, are not used.

To conjugate a verb is to rehearse it with all its dif- ferent inflections. The French have four conjugations, which are easily distinguished by the termination of the present of the infinitive. The French, like most modern nations, not having a sufficient number of inflections in their verbs to represent the great variety of their tenses, supply this deficiency with two auxiliary verbs, avoir and etre, to have and to be.

Those tenses in a verb whose inflections are derived pure and unmixed from the parent stock, are called sim- ple tenses, and are always in French expressed by a sin- gle word. But the tenses which are formed by the union of those of the verbs avoir, or etre, with a partici- ple past, are called compound, and necessarily consist of not less than two or three words. He has livre ami honesty. You have honnetete f. Thou hast had plaisir m. He has had patience. She has had beauty. We have or m. You have had friendship. They have had honneur amitie f. They have had sensibility. He had bien m.

Ihad thou hadst ' he had we had you had they had j'eus tu eus il eut nous eumes vous eutes ils eurent eu had sincerity. They had lemons, m. Thou hadst had nectarines. She had had hazel-nuts, We had had noix noisette chestnuts. You had had figs. They had had medlars. They had groseille m.

Thou fort 2 noir 3 encre f. She had had uncommon honnete 2 procede 1 rare 2 graces. We had had very ripe grapes. You had had exquisite 1. They had had ready money. Thou applique 2 eleve m. He will have ridiculous ideas. L We shall have useless cares. You will have true and real inutile 2 soin m.

They will have poignant griefs. She will have had charming in. We shall have had good pens. You will have had fleurs f. They will have had fine clothes. Present of the conditional. Thou should'st have pretty playthings. We should have beautiful pictures. You would have pretty houses. They should have long con- f. Thou would'st have had more pleasure. You would certainly de occasion f. Aie, or aye Have thov. They would have 1 beaucoup de avantage sur lui had many enemies.

Observe that, when the verb is followed by several substantives, the proper article and preposition must be repeated before each. Let him have modesty, and more correct ideas. Let her have more decency. Let us have courage and firmness. Have gravy soup, nice roast-beef, and a pudding. Let un gras 2 soupe f. Let them have manners, m. That thou may'st have good reasons to give him. That he may have donner lui elevated sentiments.

That we may have courage and mag- eleve 2 — m. That they may have more condescension marine f. That he may have had enlightened judges. That we may have eclair e 2 juge m. That you may have had a great neige f. That cabinet de toilette m. That thou might'st have a knife, a spoon, and a pistolet m. That we might have a penknife, pencils, and good fourchette f.

That he might have a coach, a good house, and modele m. That you might have meuble, m. That they might have fruitful sanie f. That thou amitie f. That he gant m. That we zele 2 Jldele 3 domestique m. That you might have had warm friends. That 1 chaud 2 1 they might have had greatness of soul and pity.

Tu n'avais pas debien, Thou hadst no wealth. Elle n'eut pas d'honnetete. She had no Nous n'avons pas eu d'amitie, We have had no friendship. Vous n'aviez pas eu de puissans You had not had powerful amis, friends. I have no precious medals. We have no useless things. We have had no generosity. Thou hadst not a beautiful park. You had no pare m. He had had no fine houses. They had had no money. He had not argent m. They had no carpets. Preterit an- habile jardinier m. Thou hadst had no complaisance.

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