Kausalmodellierung mit Partial Least Squares: Eine anwendungsorientierte Einführung (German Edition)

International Review of Research in Open and Distributed Learning

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Is peer assessment fair?

How to implement checks when learners are trusted to complete assignments themselves? What video production methods are maximal? Is a low rate of course completion important? Clearly, we are still early in the research that truly understands learner perception and attitude within the MOOC environment. Shih, Feng, and Tsai pointed out that E-learning was a trending subject in studies of learner perception and attitude. The specific situation for practice-oriented course material, delivered through a MOOC, is even less understood and requires investigation into learner adaptability and behaviour participating in a MOOC that includes a practice-oriented focus.

Many empirical studies have found support for these two theories. A single theory or model may not sufficiently describe complex research topics. According to Armitage and Conner , few reliable inferences can be drawn from measurements of behavioural intention to actual behaviour, even though most studies limit their data collection to behavioural intention.

Learners may express behavioural intention to learn online, but their actual behaviour may not occur. In addition, Hung, Liang, and Chang examined 58 well-known aspects of TAM-related literature and pointed out that the effect size between behavioural intention BI and actual behaviour B was not robust. Thus, the first focus of this study is to enhance the explanatory power between these two variables; that is, behavioural intention and actual behaviour within a MOOC practice-oriented course setting. The second focus of this paper is to describe the factors that influence MOOC learners' application of information technology to new modes of learning.

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The current study includes empirical results of a practice-oriented course on MOOCs, and results provide reference for MOOC platforms' efforts to include practice-oriented courses. Currently, very few studies have delved into the behaviour and mental mechanisms of learners who were willing to take online practice-oriented courses. Therefore, this study intends to identify the factors that influence learners through an online practice-oriented course teaching 2D Animation Production. The aims of this study include. Many previous studies have probed the factors influencing e-learning intention.

Hence, the current study uses two types of internal focus of control, as suggested by TAM: C-TAM-TPB can explain behavioural intention from volitional and non-volitional perspectives while observing measures of perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. The following discussion of existing literature is organized as follows: Common characteristics of MOOCs include videos delivering core instructional content often ranging from 5 to 15 minutes per video.

Such content can be viewed once or repeatedly, at any time and from any place, at low, normal, or high speed of playback. In most such courses, student scores are earned through assignments, online discussions, and evaluation instruments like tests and quizzes.

High enrollment rates often accompany the opening of the typical MOOC course, but this tends to be followed by a low course completion rate Pretz, ; Jordan, With no barriers to enrollment, many learners register just with the goal of obtaining some amount of course content, without considering actually completing the course requirements Stack, Teachers also face the downside of large amounts of assignments to review for little to no extra remuneration. One common approach to overcome these issues is the mechanism of peer assessment Kulkarni et al.

Peer assessment is nothing new, but executing it within cyberspace is and requires technological tools. If the technology, or the comfort level of using it, is not smooth, success will be impossible. Thus, models of technology acceptance can be helpful in understanding the situation. This model suggests that behavioural intention positively influences performance. This approach effectively predicts perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness, which influences how individuals will use information technology that is new to them.

This model applies the belief-attitude-intention-behaviour relationship in order to model user acceptance of information technology or information systems Davis et al. Selim , and Sun, Tsai, Finger, Chen, and Yeh found that perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use are important indicators of online course acceptance. According to Davis , applying TAM, perceived ease of use influences perceived usefulness, and both constructs together influence user attitude toward information technology use.

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Perceived usefulness refers to an individual's belief that using a particular information technology will improve his or her work efficiency. A positive perception of usefulness leads to a more positive attitude toward adoption. Perceived ease of use increases when a learner believes it is easy to learn a particular system, which also leads to increased likelihood of continuous use of the system Davis et al.

Ong, Lai, and Wang and Liaw pointed out that perceived ease of use influences the learner's behavioural intention to use an online learning system. Li, Qi, and Shu found perceived ease of use significantly predicted perceived usefulness and behavioural intention. According to Schillewaert, Ahearne, Frambach, and Moenaert , and Wu and Chen , perceived usefulness is a significant mediator of the effects of perceived ease of use influence on behavioural intention.

Thus, this study proposes the following four hypotheses:. Attitude formation is based on experiences during an action, as well as previous related experiences, which may have deferred actions due to difficulties. According to Bamberg, Ajzen, and Schmidt ; Davis et al. Therefore, this study proposes the following hypothesis:. Namely, an individual's behavioural intention is the best predictor of behaviour.

Ajzen added the constructs of perceived behaviour control PBC , attitude toward behaviour and subjective norm SN to the Theory of Reasoned Action.

Several researchers have empirically supported TPB in their studies of e-learning Cheon et al. Behavioural intention refers to the subjective probability of an individual to perform a certain behaviour. This is one of the reasons that Ajzen used the constructs of behavioural intention and perceived behaviour control to reflect motivation and ability.

Perceived behaviour control refers to whether an individual has ample resources and opportunities to perform a specific behaviour, and to what degree that behaviour can be controlled. In short, when learners are involved in a MOOC practice-oriented course, the perceived behaviour control refers to the degree of ease or difficulty the learner perceives. A subjective norm can be regarded as an influential social factor. Thus, subjective norm influences an individual's intention to perform a certain behaviour.

Based on this research thread, the current study proposes the following hypotheses:. When an individual has stronger behavioural intention to use a particular information system, they would tend to actually use such a system more frequently. As pointed out by both Armitage and Conner , and Hung et al.

Thus, this study proposes the following hypothesis:. The course duration was 10 weeks, with 22 hours in total. The course was entirely free of charge, and a course completion certificate was issued to learners reaching a minimum final score of As the course proceeded to the fourth week, a notice was posted on the platform bulletin board requiring participants to answer the questionnaire on the network platform.

The questionnaire was open for two weeks. A total of valid questionnaires were collected. Respondents' average age was Of the respondents, The current study's structural model includes seven constructs and the questionnaire. The perceptual scales measured and measurement items are shown in Appendix A. The questionnaire consisted of three sections: Participants answered the survey questions according to their self-perception. The survey's second section included four constructs from TAM: Principal component analysis and path analysis are also employed to determine best regression coefficient combinations of X and Y Ringle, The first stage analyzed model reliability and validity.

The second stage tested the model path coefficients, while the third stage examined the mediation effect. Details of the analysis is given in the following sections. Construct validity was examined in accordance with the three principles of convergent validity, as suggested by Fornell and Larcker Convergent validity of all construct measurement items should meet the following three conditions: Table 1 shows results for reliability and validity of all constructs.

First, the cross-loading matrix, and second, using Fornell-Lacker's criterion adopted in this study, comparing the correlation coefficients among all latent constructs with the square roots of AVE. When the AVE value is higher than the diagonal value of the row and column in the latent construct correlation coefficient matrix, it denotes significant discriminant validity among the construct measurements.

According to data analysis, the square roots of all variables' AVE ranged between 0. As shown on the right of Table 1, the AVE values of all variables were higher than the correlation coefficients among all latent constructs. Therefore, this questionnaire exhibited adequate discriminant validity. This study used PLS-SEM for structural model analysis, exploring the intensity and direction of the relationships among variables. Collinearity could be evaluated by using the variance inflation factor VIF to investigate if a collinearity problem exists.

As shown in Table 2, the minimum and maximum VIFs of all variables were 1. Structural model analysis results are shown in Figure 2. According to the overall structural model analysis, the path coefficient of learners' perceived ease of use of a MOOC to behavioural intention is 0. The path coefficient from perceived ease of use to attitude is 0. The path coefficient from perceived usefulness to attitude is 0.

The path coefficient from perceived ease of use to perceived usefulness is 0. The path coefficient from attitude to behavioural intention is 0. The path coefficient from subjective norm to behavioural intention is 0.

The path coefficient from perceived behaviour control to behavioural intention is 0. The path coefficient from perceived behaviour control to actual behaviour is 0. The path coefficient from subjective norm to actual behaviour is 0. Finally, the path coefficient from behavioural intention to actual behaviour is 0. In summary, all the hypotheses of the model are supported.

The PLS-SEM approach evaluates the value of endogenous constructs in the structural model, providing a reference for overall assessment of fit Hulland, As seen in Figure 2, the values of the four endogenous constructs were 0. The values of behavioural intention and actual behaviour were quite high, indicating that actual behaviour and the six preceding factors explain Structural model PLS results.

In addition to the model's predictive power, effect size is an important indicator. Besides assessing the of all the endogenous constructs, the specific exogenous variables that cause changes to were removed in order to evaluate whether the removed variables had any significant effect on the endogenous variables; this measurement is called the effect size, and the computation formula is provided in Appendix B.

According to the general principle of assessment, 0.

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As shown by Table 3, the average effect size was larger than 0. Of special note was the effect size of actual behaviour, which was 0. Positive and negative affect can be measured as state capturing emotional responses at the very moment or trait capturing mood or personality differences in emotionality; Watson et al. In SWB research, usually longer time frames of affect are considered. However, in this study rather temporary moods and emotions were captured than a longer term affective evaluation. Self-esteem comprises the individual sense of the self, worth, acceptance, personal and social society, therefore being a sensitive measure of well-being Hewitt, , whereas vitality represents a more dynamic aspect of well-being, capturing the availability of sufficient self-regulatory resources to successfully manage daily life challenges Ryan and Frederick, Depending on different definitions of well-being e.

Stress, capturing the evaluation of difficulties and obstacles, is related to well-being but not defined as part of it in any definition momentary negative affect addresses the only somewhat similar construct. This needs to be considered when interpreting the data and addressed accordingly in future research. The importance of contextual factors in positive psychology has been acknowledged already Seligman and Csikszentmihalyi, Stokols has argued for an identification of environmental conditions that either constrain individuals from realizing their strengths or, alternatively, enhance the opportunity to apply them.

Indeed, situations vary in their capacity to foster or constrain human agency Mischel, While the study presented here explored the application of individual strengths in a new cultural context, it is limited in not considering the relevance of the situational environment in respect to the presented correlations.

Accordingly, an opportunity for future studies is to explore not only the correlations presented herein, but also others yet to be identified across a range of contexts. Other studies within this research field suggest the existence of an even more complex inter-correlational model including some of the indicator measures of well-being used in this study.

The possibility of these constructs being mediators or moderators has been discussed in the literature. Mediators can be defined as variables accounting for the relation between a predictor and a criterion in a certain extent. Whereas moderator variables specify when certain effects will hold, mediators speak to how or why such effects occur Baron and Kenny, For example, previous studies found positive affect to be a moderator of the relationship between gratitude and subjective well-being in school children and adolescents Froh et al.

Consistent with Froh et al. As has been suggested elsewhere, these could include personality variables cf. Sheldon and Lyubomirsky, or age Froh et al. Also, given that strengths use may facilitate individuals feeling good about themselves, which in turn contributes to increased levels of self-esteem, it would not be surprising to find self-esteem moderating the relationship of strengths use to well-being.

Moreover, how experienced a person is in drawing on and applying strengths may also influence the magnitude of the strengths use to well-being relationship. Thus, whether experience in applying strengths alters the strengths use to well-being relationship would represent a worthy question to address. According to these results, further investigations due to strengths use and related constructs need to consider mediator or moderator effects more carefully.

Additionally, given that strengths use is suggested to be more intrinsically motivated e. The extant body of self-determination theory research could prove insightful when exploring the relevance of motivations. In addition, given that the incidence of mental illness in society is increasing Seligman et al. Interventions promoting strengths use in education, work and private life may be a way to foster long-term individual resilience and optimal functioning with a favorable cost-value ratio [e.

Can one use an individual strength like one uses a bicycle? Personality characteristics can be seen as constructs, a summary of behaviors and they are not an existing entity. However, the questions is whether having a certain personality characteristic automatically implies using the associated behavior, or whether using the associated behavior without having the associated personality characteristic is also related to the outcome of interest?

However, these questions ignore the environment and circumstances completely in which behavior of a person usually takes place e. The results presented here make several useful contributions to the science how to potentially increase well-being of societies. First, the study confirmed the single-factor structure of the German version of the SUS and second, hypothesized relationships of strengths use and well-being indicators positive inter-correlations with positive affect, self-esteem and vitality, negative inter-correlations with perceived stress and negative affect.

Replications in social science research are of utmost importance to contribute to the establishment of evidence. Therefore, the German version of the SUS is psychometrically sound and the scale can be recommended for further research studies whether applying individual strengths can lead to, e. Future research should address for example, 1 if and how the promotion of applying individual strengths during education, can result in higher levels of well-being and healthiness in future lives, and 2 how the implementation of strength use in job-design guidelines or working conditions can contribute to higher levels of well-being.

The German version of the SUS was introduced and accordingly found to be well suited for studies with German-speaking adults. The revelation that using individual strengths is positively associated with well-being was reinforced. Clearly, there remains much to be done to scientifically explore the impact of individual strengths use in other countries and cultures. All other personal data used for the statistical analyses are presented sufficiently within the paper. University of Innsbruck, vice director for research: It is hereby certified that this project is in correspondence with all requirements of the ethical principles and the guidelines of good scientific practice of the University of Innsbruck.

The study was designed by AH and SH and carried out by them as well. Data were analyzed and interpreted by AH and DW. All authors contributed to the manuscript essentially drafting, revising. All authors read and approved the final manuscript. The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

We express our gratitude to Dr. Astrid Oberkleiner and MMag. Kristin Kleon for their contribution to the translation process as well. We further wish to acknowledge Ms. Resch BSc for assisting in the process of data collection. The Supplementary Material for this article can be found online at: The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Personality strengths in adolescence and decreased risk of developing mental health problems in early adulthood.

Now, Discover Your Strengths: German PSS — Translation. Oskamp Newbury Park, CA: Hedonia, eudaimonia, and well-being: Strengths use and life satisfaction: Calling and career adaptability among undergraduate students. From strengths use to work performance: Counting blessings versus burdens: Toward a structure- and process-integrated view of personality: Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error. What good are positive emotions in crises?

A prospective study of resilience and emotions following the terrorist attacks on the United States on September 11th, Who benefits the most from a gratitude intervention in children and adolescents? Examining positive affect as a moderator. Strengths use, self-concordance and well-being: Multivariate Data Analysis 7. Upper Saddle River, NJ: The application of signature character strengths and positive experiences at work. Lopez New York, NY: Oxford University Press , — A rationale and test for the number of factors in factor analysis.

Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Kausalmodellierung mit Partial Least Squares: Use of partial least squares PLS in strategic management research:

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