Timeline of the Early Modern Age

History of Early Modern Europe

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Created a means of exporting ideas such as protestantism. From the early 15th to the late 16th century, Songhai was one of the largest Islamic empires in history. Marked the need to find a sea route around Africa. He reigned from about to Sunni Ali was the first king of the Songhai Empire. First european explorer to navigate to the Tip of Africa. He was an explorer, navigator, and colonizer. He ushered a new era by adding the Americas into the world movement towards globalization thus causing population fluxes, increased usage of slavery, and other things.

Monarchy; Mercantilism; the sun does not fall in the British Empire.

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He was an explorer created a new trade route to China without having to deal with the Ottomans or Venetians. The route circumnavigated the tip of South Africa and enters the Indian Ocean. He was a Spanish explorer, governor, and conquistador.

His best known achievment is for having crossed the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean in , therefore becoming the first European to lead an expedition to have seen or reached the Pacific from the New World. He was for many years an official in the Florentine Republic, with responsibilities in diplomatic and military affairs.

He was a founder of modern political science, and more specifically political ethics. He also wrote comedies, carnival songs, and poetry. His personal correspondence is renowned in the Italian language. He was Secretary to the Second Chancery of the Republi. Began the Schism between protestants and catholics. Suleiman became a prominent monarch of 16th century Europe, presiding over the apex of the Ottoman Empire's military, political and economic power.

Suleiman personally led Ottoman armies in conquering the Christian strongholds of Belgrade, Rhodes, as well as most of Hungary before his conquests were checked at the Siege of Vienna in He annexed much of the Middle East in his conflict with the Safavids and large areas of North Africa as far west as Algeria.

Under his rule, the Ottoman fleet. He also managed to complete the full cycle of circumnavigation around the Earth. He was a Spanish knight from a local noble family, hermit, priest since , and theologian, who founded the Society of Jesus Jesuits and was its first Superior General. Ignatius emerged as a religious leader during the Counter-Reformation. Helped begin Great Age of Discovery.

Portuguese named the tip the Cape of Good Hope and Dias lost at sea during expedition around Cape in Songhay passed Mali at its peak during his rule. Aztec at peak during his reign. Philosopher and humanist during Renaissance in Florence. Today, Machiavellian means corrupt government because of his bad reputation. He bcame associated with corrupt ruling when he wrote "Prince" to gain the favor of the Medici, but neither they nor the public agreed.

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Traveled through much of Pacific coast of America along Peru. Conquered Inca empire, killing Atahualpa. Assembled fleet of ships and proved the earth was round. When father died and divided the kingdom, had a bloody civil war to determine who would rule all of Inca. Captured by Spanish conquistador Francisco Pizarro, who executed him. Calvinism simplifies Lutherism in Switzerland, France, and Scotland. The Safavid dynasty was founded about From their base in Ardabil, the Safavids established control over all of Persia and reasserted the Iranian identity of the region, thus becoming the first native dynasty since the Sassanids to establish a unified Iranian state.

Problematic for the Safavids was the powerful Ottoman Empire. The Ottomans, a Sunni dynasty, fought several campaigns against the Safavids. What fueled the growth of Safavid economy was its position between the burgeoning civilizations of Europe to its west and Islamic Central Asia to its east and north. Leaders also supported direct sea trade with Europe, particularly England and The Netherlands, which sought Persian carpet, silk, and textiles.

Other exports were horses, goat hair, pearls, and an inedible bitter almond hadam-talka used as a spice in India. The main imports were spice, textiles woolens from Europe, cotton from Gujarat , metals, coffee, and sugar. Despite their demise in , the Safavids left their mark by establishing and spreading Shi'a Islam in major parts of the Caucasus and West Asia. In the 16th to early 18th centuries, Central Asia was under the rule of Uzbeks , and the far eastern portions were ruled by the local Pashtuns.

Between the 15th and 16th centuries, various nomadic tribes arrived from the steppes, including the Kipchaks , Naymans , Kanglis , Khongirad , and Manguds. These groups were led by Muhammad Shaybani , who was the Khan of the Uzbeks. The lineage of the Afghan Pashtuns stretches back to the Hotaki dynasty. Pashtun forces also invaded Persia, and the opposing forces were defeated in the Battle of Gulnabad.

The Pashtuns later formed the Durrani Empire. The beginning of the early modern period is not clear-cut, but is generally accepted as in the late 15th century or early 16th century. Significant dates in this transitional phase from medieval to early modern Europe can be noted:.

This era in Western Europe is referred to as the early modern European period and includes the Protestant Reformation , the European wars of religion , the Age of Discovery and the beginning of European colonialism , the rise of strong centralized governments, the beginnings of recognizable nation-states that are the direct antecedents of today's states, the Age of Enlightenment , and from the associated scientific advances the first phase of the Industrial Revolution.

The emergence of cultural and political dominance of the Western world during this period is known as the Great Divergence. At the end of the early modern period, the British and Russian empires had emerged as world powers from the multipolar contest of colonial empires , while the three great Asian empires of the early modern period, Ottoman Turkey , Mughal India and Qing China , all entered a period of stagnation or decline. The expression "early modern" is at times incorrectly used as a substitute for the term Renaissance. However, "Renaissance" is properly used in relation to a diverse series of cultural developments that occurred over several hundred years in many different parts of Europe — especially central and northern Italy — and it spans the transition from late medieval civilization to the opening of the early modern period.

In the visual arts and architecture, the term 'early modern' is not a common designation as the Renaissance period is clearly distinct from what came later. Only in the study of literature is the early modern period a standard designation. European music of the period is generally divided between Renaissance and Baroque. Similarly, philosophy is divided between Renaissance philosophy and the Enlightenment.

In other fields, there is far more continuity through the period such as warfare and science. When gunpowder was introduced to Europe, it was immediately used almost exclusively in weapons and explosives for warfare. Though it was invented in China, gunpowder arrived in Europe already formulated for military use and European countries took advantage of it and were the first to create the classic firearms. Despite its name, for much of its history the Empire did not include Rome within its borders. The Renaissance [21] was a cultural movement that spanned roughly the 14th to the 17th century, beginning in Italy in the Late Middle Ages and later spreading to the rest of Europe.

The term is also used more loosely to refer to the historic era , but since the changes of the Renaissance were not uniform across Europe, this is a general use of the term. As a cultural movement, it encompassed a rebellion of learning based on classical sources, the development of linear perspective in painting, and gradual but widespread educational reform.

Johannes Gutenberg is credited as the first European to use movable type printing , around , and as the global inventor of the mechanical printing press. Nicolaus Copernicus formulated a comprehensive heliocentric cosmology , which displaced the Earth from the center of the universe. Another notable individual was Machiavelli , an Italian political philosopher, considered a founder of modern political science.

Machiavelli is most famous for a short political treatise, The Prince , a work of realist political theory. Among the notable royalty of the time, Charles the Bold , known as Charles the Bold or Rash to his enemies, [23] he was the last Valois Duke of Burgundy , and his early death was a pivotal, if under-recognized, moment in European history. Charles has often been regarded as the last representative of the feudal spirit — a man who possessed no other quality than a blind bravery. Upon his death, Charles left an unmarried nineteen-year-old daughter, Mary of Burgundy , as his heir.

Her marriage would have enormous implications for the political balance of Europe. In , the territory of the Duchy of Burgundy was annexed by France. In the same year, Mary married Maximilian, Archduke of Austria , giving the Habsburgs control of the remainder of the Burgundian Inheritance. Claude de Lorraine was the first Duke of Guise , from to his death. Claude distinguished himself at the battle of Marignano , and was long in recovering from the twenty-two wounds he received in the battle.

In , he fought at Fuenterrabia , and Louise of Savoy ascribed the capture of the place to his efforts. In he destroyed the Anabaptist peasant army , which was overrunning Lorraine , at Lupstein , near Saverne Zabern. On the return of Francis I from captivity in , Claude was made Duke of Guise in the peerage of France , though up to this time only princes of the royal house had held the title of duke and peer of France.

The 3rd Duke of Alba was a nobleman of importance in the early modern period, nicknamed the "Iron Duke" by the Protestants of the Low Countries because of his harsh rule and cruelty. Tales of atrocities committed during his military operations in Flanders became part of Dutch and English folklore, forming a central component of the Black Legend. Although in the greater part of his reign he brutally suppressed the influence of the Protestant Reformation in England, [24] a movement having some roots with John Wycliffe in the 14th century, he is more popularly known for his political struggles with Rome.

These struggles ultimately led to the separation of the Church of England from papal authority, the Dissolution of the Monasteries , and establishing himself as the Supreme Head of the Church of England. Though Henry reportedly became a Protestant on his death-bed, he advocated Catholic ceremony and doctrine throughout his life. Royal support for the English Reformation began with his heirs, the devout Edward VI and the renowned Elizabeth I , whilst daughter Mary I temporarily reinstated papal authority over England.

He is also noted for his six wives , two of whom were beheaded. Christianity was challenged at the beginning of the modern period with the fall of Constantinople in and later by various movements to reform the church including Lutheran, Zwinglian, and Calvinist , followed by the Counter Reformation. The Hussite Crusades involved the military actions against and amongst the followers of Jan Hus in Bohemia ending ultimately with the Battle of Grotniki. Also known as the Hussite Wars, they were arguably the first European war in which hand-held gunpowder weapons such as muskets made a decisive contribution.

The Taborite faction of the Hussite warriors were basically infantry, and their many defeats of larger armies with heavily armored knights helped effect the infantry revolution. In totality, the Hussite Crusades were inconclusive. The last crusade, the Crusade of , was organized to counter the expanding Ottoman Empire and lift the Siege of Belgrade , and was led by John Hunyadi and Giovanni da Capistrano.

The siege eventually escalated into a major battle, during which Hunyadi led a sudden counterattack that overran the Turkish camp, ultimately compelling the wounded Sultan Mehmet II to lift the siege and retreat. The siege of Belgrade has been characterized as having "decided the fate of Christendom ". Nearly a hundred years later, the Peace of Augsburg officially ended the idea that all Christians could be united under one church. The principle of cuius regio, eius religio "whose the region is, [it shall have] his religion" established the religious, political and geographic divisions of Christianity, and this was established in international law with the Treaty of Westphalia in , which legally ended the concept of a single Christian hegemony , i.

Each government determined the religion of their own state. Christians living in states where their denomination was not the established church were guaranteed the right to practice their faith in public during allotted hours and in private at their will. With the Treaty of Westphalia, the Wars of Religion came to an end, and in the Treaty of Utrecht of the concept of the sovereign national state was born. The Corpus Christianum has since existed with the modern idea of a tolerant and diverse society consisting of many different communities.

The modern Inquisition refers to any one of several institutions charged with trying and convicting heretics or other offenders against canon law within the Catholic Church. In the modern era, the first manifestation was the Spanish Inquisition of to Because of its objective — combating heresy — the Inquisition had jurisdiction only over baptized members of the Church which, however, encompassed the vast majority of the population in Catholic countries. Secular courts could still try non-Christians for blasphemy most of the witch trials went through secular courts.

The Protestant Reformation and rise of modernity in the early 16th century entailed the start of a series of changes in the Corpus Christianum. Martin Luther challenged the Catholic Church with his Ninety-Five Theses , generally accepted as the beginning of the Reformation, a Christian reform movement in Europe, though precursors such as Jan Hus predate him. The Protestant movement of the 16th century occurred under the protection of the Electorate of Saxony , an independent hereditary electorate of the Holy Roman Empire.

The Augustinian monk Martin Luther became professor of philosophy there in At the same time, he became one of the preachers at the castle church of Wittenberg. On 31 October , Luther posted his Ninety-Five Theses on the door of the All Saints' Church , which served as a notice board for university-related announcements. The most controversial points centered on the practice of selling indulgences especially by Johann Tetzel and the Church's policy on purgatory. The reform movement soon split along certain doctrinal lines.

Religious disagreements between various leading figures led to the emergence of rival Protestant churches. The process of reform had decidedly different causes and effects in other countries. In England, where it gave rise to Anglicanism , the period became known as the English Reformation. Subsequent Protestant denominations generally trace their roots back to the initial reforming movements. The Diet of Worms in , presided by Emperor Charles V , declared Martin Luther a heretic and an outlaw although Charles V was more preoccupied with maintaining his vast empire than with arresting Luther.

As a result of Charles V's distractions in East Europe and in Spain, he agreed through the Diet of Speyer in to allow German princes to effectively decide themselves whether to enforce the Edict of Worms or not, for the time being. After returning to the empire, Charles V attended the Diet of Augsburg in to order all Protestants in the empire to revert to Catholicism.

Charles V left again to handle the advance of the Ottoman Turks. He returned in to launch a military campaign against the Schmalkaldic League and to issue an imperial law requiring all Protestants to return to Catholic practices with a few superficial concessions to Protestant practices. Warfare ended when Charles V relented in the Peace of Passau and in the Peace of Augsburg , which formalized the law that the rulers of a land decide its religion. Of the late Inquisitions in the modern era, there were two different manifestations: This Portuguese inquisition was a local analogue of the more famous Spanish Inquisition.

The Roman Inquisition covered most of the Italian peninsula as well as Malta and also existed in isolated pockets of papal jurisdiction in other parts of Europe, including Avignon. The idea was to reform the state of worldliness and disarray that had befallen some of the clergy of the Church , while reaffirming the spiritual authority of the Catholic Church and its position as the sole true Church of Christ on Earth. The effort sought to prevent further damage to the Church and her faithful at the hands of the newly formed Protestant denominations.

The Tsar promulgated a new code of laws Sudebnik of , established the first Russian feudal representative body Zemsky Sobor and introduced local self-management into the rural regions. Thus by the end of the 16th century Russia was transformed into a multiethnic , multiconfessional and transcontinental state.

The Age of Discovery was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century, during which European ships traveled around the world to search for new trading routes and partners to feed burgeoning capitalism in Europe. They also were in search of trading goods such as gold, silver and spices. In the process, Europeans encountered peoples and mapped lands previously unknown to them.

This factor in the early European modern period was a globalizing character; the 'discovery' of the Americas and the rise of sustained contacts between previously isolated parts of the globe was an important historical event.

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The search for new routes was based on the fact that the Silk Road was controlled by the Ottoman Empire, which was an impediment to European commercial interests, and other Eastern trade routes were not available to the Europeans due to Muslim control. The ability to outflank the Muslim states of North Africa was seen as crucial to European survival. At the same time, the Iberians learnt much from their Arab neighbors. The northwestern region of Eurasia has a very long coastline, and has arguably been more influenced by its maritime history than any other continent. Europe is uniquely situated between several navigable seas, and intersected by navigable rivers running into them in a way that greatly facilitated the influence of maritime traffic and commerce.

In the maritime history of Europe , the carrack and caravel both incorporated the lateen sail that made ships far more maneuverable. By translating the Arab versions of lost ancient Greek geographical works into Latin, European navigators acquired a deeper knowledge of the shape of Africa and Asia. Mercantilism was the dominant school of economic thought throughout the early modern period from the 16th to the 18th century. This led to some of the first instances of significant government intervention and control over the economy, and it was during this period that much of the modern capitalist system was established.

Internationally, mercantilism encouraged the many European wars of the period and fueled European imperialism. Belief in mercantilism began to fade in the late 18th century, as the arguments of Adam Smith and the other classical economists won out. The Commercial Revolution was a period of economic expansion, colonialism , and mercantilism that lasted from approximately the 16th century until the early 18th century. Beginning with the Crusades , Europeans rediscovered spices, silks, and other commodities rare in Europe.

This development created a new desire for trade, which expanded in the second half of the Middle Ages.

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