Attachment Theory: Social, Developmental, and Clinical Perspectives

Attachment Theory: Social, Developmental, and Clinical Perspectives

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By Susan Goldberg,Roy Muir,John Kerr At a ancient convention in Toronto in October , developmental researchers and clinicians got here jointly for the 1st time to discover the consequences of present wisdom of attachment. This quantity is the end result in their labors. It bargains cutting edge methods to the certainty of such various medical issues as baby abuse, borderline character sickness, dissociation, adolescent suicide, remedy responsiveness, fake reminiscence, narrative competence, and the intergenerational transmission of trauma.

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Empir- caregiving behaviour is too simplistic. He high- ical studies have found support for the stability lights the way in which dependence on internal of attachment patterns intergenerationally e. For Benoit and Parker, ; Fonagy et al. High concordance rates have experienced and represented quite differently by been found between attachment security in chil- different infants. Some theorists have alterna- enting practices, thus maintaining attachment pat- tively conceptualized IWMs as having situation terns Rosenstein and Horowitz, However, as of patterns does not occur intergenerationally e.

That is, situation specificity may be dependent indications of early adverse attachment experiences upon the flexibility of IWMs constructed through in later years Pearson et al. Although the exact nature of The concept of an IWM has also been criticized the factors and mechanisms underlying the change for being overinclusive, which limits its testability are unclear, later alternative relationships, social and explanatory power Rutter, Main factors and environmental influences are all indi- has refined the thinking about IWMs through the cated as significant.

For example, Greenberg the concept of an IWM with the development proposes a model based on four significant risk of a theory of mind Fonagy, That is, domains; child characteristics temperament, neu- developing a theory of mind relies on the capacity rology etc , attachment history, parental manage- to think hypothetically about the mental life of ment style and family ecology. In this model oneself and others e. However, it still of scientific analysis, particularly in terms of remains to be seen to what extent such domains measuring attachment patterns beyond infancy.

Wright an adverse economic and social milieu nonetheless become parents themselves. Puberty is the final develop a secure attachment? The development of can be modified in relation to the social, bio- secondary sexual characteristics and explicit moves logical and cognitive developments Kenny et al.

Crittenden a reproduction as well as protection into the attach- maintains that development enables attachment- ment equation. Predominant attachment patterns related information to become integrated, yielding in the adolescent become sexualized.

Investigating this idea in relation ous interest in themselves and others, something to the period of adolescence has been hindered akin to the secure base phenomenon. The hope by the scarcity of measurement tools. It is within is that sexual contact will take place within an this developmental context that researchers have intimate relationship. However, it is equally likely turned to more indirect measures of representation that if the adolescent brings with them an inse- in middle childhood and adolescence.

For example, cure attachment history, then alternative outcomes play narratives and story stem techniques Brether- result. When sexual interest is activated as a sec- ton et al. Most ond central motivator of behaviour, the protective promising for adolescents might be semi-projective strategies associated with attachment are probably tools Hansburg, ; Resnick, ; Scott Brown reorganized Crittenden, a. Such an approach is focus of relationships. The secure base dialectic is not directly reliant on behavioural observations or once again in ascendancy as a central issue because the direct interviewing style of the AAI.

This currently missing from the literature. We have is a complex task involving both parents, peers and demonstrated that a consideration of development wider social contexts. This is because the IWM is inclusion. It was also emphasized that there is based on the assumption of unpredictability in inti- a measurement gap at adolescence in the study mate relations. Charm, seductiveness and threat of attachment patterns. These issues will now be may evolve as central characteristics. Alternatively considered in more detail. This will be significantly influenced by the compatibility with existing IWMs between the two young people Caregivers, Autonomy and Adolescence coming together Bartholomew, Whether a Attachment to parents during adolescence differs perceived incongruence leads to rejection or accep- from other ages because it emphasizes emotional tance will depend on the extent it is felt to fill an autonomy whilst maximizing levels of support experiential gap.

That is, successful partnerships Schneider and Younger, This helps the require flexibility of mind and accommodating to adolescent to retain a sense of stability when the other to create a goal-corrected partnership. An so many changes are taking place, as well as inflexible, rigid organization in contrast can lead acting as a secure base from which to explore to dangerous physical and psychological liaisons. Particularly salient during adolescence is the degree of unpredictability and volatility West and process of separation—individuation from parents, George, Cognitive Development The quality of earlier childhood attachments We now turn to a second characteristic of adoles- appears to lay the foundation for later social cent maturational development, that of cognitive relationships with peers and other adults, which development and a move to formal operational can be modified or more firmly established during thinking.

This shift allows an increased ability to adolescence. In this sense, adolescence is a period think hypothetically, with possibilities rather than of consolidation in attachment Lyddon et al. The move to formal For example, Sroufe et al. The transition as protective or risk factors for later psychological from dichotomous classification to greater flexibil- adjustment and for the quality of peer relationships ity allows the adolescent to access inner thoughts, Batgos and Leadbeater, ; Kobak et al.

While a more truly working model of relationships can some identity strengths will come from within now be said to be operating. It is particular social groups as ready available identity this developmental process that facilitates the rein- strengths at this age. Between the world of play tegration of information, revision of models and and the world of work, adolescence stands at a the development of more effective strategies to unique psychosocial point.

However, there is also the possi- authority from parents and society.

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Wright adolescent version of the Separation Anxiety Test to psychopathology in ways that parallel findings Resnick, has found support for this view. For example, depression during adolescence has been linked to maternal attachment insecurity Homann, Furthermore, Adam et al. Taken While evidence supports the link between secu- together these findings suggest a potentially impor- rity of attachment and psychosocial functioning, tant link between hopelessness in adolescence and there has been increased interest in recent years to specific attachment organizations.

However, Allen understand the clinical implications of attachment et al.

Unfortunately studies of dle class sample, alongside a reliance on self-reports attachment in clinical populations have been lim- of symptoms. With this in mind we now turn to con- ited and there is a clear need to open up this sider two common disorders in adolescence eating area.

Also by Susan Goldberg

It seems that the biopsychosocial changes disorders, delinquency in more depth in order at adolescence also produce notable increases in to demonstrate what is known about attachment specific pathologies. For example, eating disor- during adolescence and psychopathology but also ders, delinquency, suicide and attempted suicide what is not. There is a clinical need Eating Disorders and Adolescent Attachment to develop measures of attachment which can be used for day-to-day assessments in clinical settings Bowlby suggested that a child feels inad- involving adolescents and adults Gerlsma and equate and out of control if given the message Luteijn, Moreover, with emphasis placed on that they are incompetent or unlovable.

These findings generally produce a picture vice versa. With this in mind the next section of parents described as over-controlling and per- will consider what is known about attachment and fectionist, emotionally unavailable and generally psychopathology in adolescence, and also some of unsupportive of independence. In such a climate the questions and challenges it raises for future the young person may develop an avoidant attach- research. The infancy and adulthood, it has been possible for control of eating behaviour is externally oriented empirical studies to gain an appreciation of the and diverts distress onto a focus on the body and nature of this relationship, which can then inform away from internal concerns.

Two notable studies our understanding of specific parallel processes have examined the association between IWMs of operating during other developmental periods, attachment and eating disorders, with somewhat such as adolescence. Longitudinal studies have contradictory results. Cole-Dekte and Kobak been particularly valuable, not only in understand- in a study of college women compared four groups: College students who port for the predictive validity of attachment, for reported only eating disorders were significantly example, the Minnesota High Risk Study which fol- associated with a dismissing avoidant attachment lowed a large sample of mothers and their infants organization.

The results combination of depression and eating disorders highlighted the relationship between adverse moth- were associated with a preoccupied ambivalent ering experiences and maladaptive and aggressive strategy—which was similar to the depression only behaviour during the school years Sroufe, However, in a study by Fonagy et al. By this he meant that they noted that all but one of this sample were also the adolescent is turning to wider society rather unresolved with regards to loss or trauma.

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A recent development of this view in attach- difference for eating disorders from other psychi- ment terms has been formulated by Fonagy et al. A complicating factor in comparing b. They suggest that a generalization of IWMs the two studies is that the work of Fonagy et al. It therefore remains to be seen whether who represent them e. Adolescents with avoidant or unresolved to Ward et al.

The implication is that logical states as opposed to defensively excluding societal and institutional responses to such young them and expressing distress through their body in people needs in turn to be mindful of such under- a concrete way. The stumbling block is the difficulty institutions have in recog- Delinquency and Adolescent Attachment nizing the significance of unconscious feelings in this context.

In thinking about delinquency and conduct disor- ders Bowlby described how separations from or repeated threats of abandonment by parents can Summary leave a child or adolescent feeling intense anxiety, Attachment during adolescence plays a central anger and rage. It also leaves them deeply suspi- motivating force, particularly because there are cious about the predicability of significant others. This includes a adolescents has found a number of key variables move to a formal operational way of thinking, from an attachment perspective, including passive which offers an opportunity for IWMs to be or neglectful parental attitudes, harsh or erratic revised and consolidated.

The empirical research discipline, and the use of coercion in the home that has been carried out with adolescents is Sheldrick, Two recent attachment-based suggestive of a significant relationship between empirical studies suggest that antisocial conduct insecure attachment patterns, psychopathology disorders are associated with unresolved and dis- and interpersonal problems, although a number missing avoidant states of mind Allen et al. Of particular note draw firm conclusions. However, the study by Fonagy et al. In this final section we aim to integrate a number found different results in a group of anti- of recent developments in theory, referred to social and paranoid personality disordered adults, in different contexts above, to demonstrate how where the majority were classified as preoccupied attachment theory can inform an understanding of or autonomous rather than dismissing.

The authors adolescent psychopathology. We also aim to draw note the significance of unresolved attachment- out some of the many questions which still remain related issues for most participants. Overall these to be answered in this area. For Crittenden, these categories allows the likelihood of experiencing rejection influence memory organization and development to be reduced.

It is hypothesized that those in particular ways. In the first category episodes of with deactivating strategies are more likely to experience are denied or shut off such that the overlook distress cues, minimizing vulnerability young person learns to rely to a large degree and the need for others the avoidant pattern.

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Hyperactivating strategies focus mind. She has further refined this to describe sub- excessively on attachment-related information and categories of avoidant strategies. This increases the on exaggerating distress signals Cole-Dekte and predictability of specific pathologies in relation to Kobak, For example, while delinquency Thus the tripartite behavioural model is trans- has been empirically linked to a derogating style posed to adolescence and is helpful in a number of avoidant attachment Allen et al.

It keeps a focus on attachment as a sive caregiving is an alternative based on a more behavioural system, adheres to the continuity of idealized avoidant style. As we have described above, in that for one adolescent early parenting would there is some empirical evidence to support this have been based on absent or punitive caregiving model from clinical and non-clinical populations which led to inhibition of affect and reliance on cog- Kobak and Cole, ; Allen et al.

This conclusion holds important nerable feelings which is generalized. Conversely, implications for the use of self-report measures of compulsive caregiving while similar in inhibition distress Field et al. In this case the dog- is highly compatible with recent developments in matism is likely to be biased towards being good theory at the IWMs and states of mind domain with and helpful at all times. An alternative false self is regard to attachment. Early par- considerable change occurs.

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In particular, adoles- enting experiences of such adolescents may have cence is a time when information from the memory been based on actual or threatened abandonments systems can potentially become more integrated by the parent if they were not looked after e. It comprehensively using the concept of memory sys- may be that such relationship-based metacognitive tems Tulving, to explain the encoding and functions are central to and a prerequisite for the accessing of attachment-related information and integration of the different perspectives on reality the relevance of this process during adolescence afforded by the different memory systems in the Crittenden, a.

By organizing information in individual. Failures in the capacity to mentalize memory systems, the possibility of error, dis- may offer a particularly useful way for understand- tortion and falsification increases. Each system evolves at a different cence. The clinical implications of this theory is period developmentally, and regulates behaviour that adolescence may offer a major opportunity for in specific situations.

Procedural memory is borderline symptoms becoming entrenched. It also biased towards behaviour and relies upon enact- potentially confirms the centrality of transference ment of affect. In contrast, semantic memory is and countertransference in the psychotherapeutic biased towards generalized statements and logical treatment of severe attachment-based disorders. In the case of the episodic system, the true. This process renders children and tortions. The defensive exclusion of information adolescents vulnerable to developing biases and may make it difficult for adolescents with insecure distortions in their memory systems until they are attachment to attend flexibly and nondefensively able to test out the accuracy of information inde- during interactions, thus reinforcing models, which pendently.

Crittenden maintains that children and are then harder to modify Dozier, Models young people may learn to misconstrue and distort may become more resilient and harder to adapt to information, particularly in conditions of threat reality.

Attachment Theory by Susan Goldberg

Similarly, Crittenden argues that ado- or unpredictability. Distortion is adaptive in that lescents with insecure attachment patterns are less it serves to promote protection in dangerous sit- able to integrate and reorganize models because uations while increasing maladaptive behaviour information is considered unreliable, so discrepan- in other contexts which are comparatively safe, cies in the model being used are not identified, pre- but misconstrued as threatening. Crittenden argues venting integration from taking place. Because the that when interpretative errors occur at a very early IWM is constantly being consulted for a desirable age, the extinction of mis-learned contingencies course of action, if the model is distorted, inaccu- may be difficult to identify and correct develop- rate forecasting and interpretation is probable.

An mentally during adolescence. Wright this outcome and selectively attend to information been highlighted in this paper. Ultimately devel- that confirms this, rather than considering other oping an understanding involves investigating possibilities Kobak and Duemmler, The role of secondary attach- actions, and have a tendency to favour assimilation ment figures also requires consideration within over accommodation. Interactional processes estab- lescent psychopathology is appealing because it lished during infancy might be critical in setting explains processes by which different experiences the foundation for difficulties, but alternative influ- lead to variations in mental processes.

Such varia- ences may be responsible for the maintenance and tions in turn lead to behavioural variations in the potential revision of attachment patterns. The theory incorporates a matu- ondary attachment strategy used by the adolescent, rational component, which is far less restrictive and what function this strategy might have in than that of models reliant on linear predictions, terms of clinical presentation, interpersonal diffi- and a way of conceptualizing individual difference.

Identifying the central secondary strategy tors influence development, alongside individual employed allows the clinic to develop an under- variation in the ability to integrate information, standing of how information is construed and and the way in which chance impinges on each per- distorted, in that it inevitably represents an ear- son in terms of life events. This idea links well with lier environment that was perceived as threatening the stress-vulnerability model that appears to be and unsafe.

Strategies may be outdated and in need operating in the relationship between attachment of revision, thus pinpointing areas of intervention. Assessment of secondary strategies is clearly Each of these factors needs consideration in order hindered by the paucity of attachment measures to conceptualize the development of psychologi- developed for adolescents. The interpretation of cal difficulties accurately.

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