Toward Carpatian Divinity

existentiation

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If this crown had been received from the Pope it would have a double significance. On the one hand it meant that the Hungarian king was spiritually a direct descendant of the Pope, and not, therefore, a vassal of the Holy Roman Emperor. So it symbolized, within bounds, the sovereignty of the kingdom. On the other hand, it was an emblem of secular rule given by the Pope to the king so that he might support the aspirations of the Roman Catholic Church in the country.

There are three types of crowns: This crown should be worn only on the occasion of a coronation, and for the rest of the time two crown guards koronaor were guarding it. Structure of the crown and its icons The Holy Crown was made of gold and decorated with nineteen enamel pictures as well as semi-precious stones, genuine pearls, and almandine. It has three parts: There are four pendants pendilium hanging from chains on each side of the diadem and one in the back.

The enamel picture on the front depicts Christ Pantokrator. On the rim to the right and left of Jesus are pictures of the archangels Michael and Gabriel, followed by half-length images of the Saints George and Demetrius, and Cosmas and Damian. Below it to the left is the half-length picture of "Kon. The contemporary Byzantine name for the Hungarians was "Turks". The enamel plaques on the circular band, the panel depicting Christ Pantokrator, and the picture of Emperor Michael were all affixed to the crown using different techniques.

The picture of the emperor could not be attached to the rim in the same way as the Pantokrator picture on the front. The frame was folded upwards and the picture of the emperor was nailed to the edge. We can thus conclude that the picture of Michael VII was not originally designed for this crown, but was probably used first somewhere else. The enamel pictures that become outdated were removed, since either represented earlier historical figures or were not appropriate for the Hungarian queen according to court protocol.

It was in this form that the crown was sent to Hungary. Corona Latina The corona latina "Latin Crown" is not an independent object, as it has no function alone. It was made of four 5. The inscription on the pictures of the saints and the style of their lettering suggest the date when they were made.

Amidst the antique-style capital letter, the T in Thomas and the second U in Paulus are formed in the style characteristic of the Latin letters used on Byzantine coins, a practice abandoned in the middle of the eleventh century. The picture of the apostles, however, based on their style, cannot be dated to around The intersecting bands are edged with beaded gold wire that closes off the lower end of the bands and finishes off the system of decoration. Each band has two altogether eight pictures of standing apostles identical to the first eight listed in Acts 1.

Cross The cross is attached to the crown in a rough manner, breaking through the image of Christ on the top. This addition might have taken place during the XVI century. The cross was knocked crooked in the 17th century when the crown was damaged, possibly by the top of the iron chest housing the insignia being hastily closed without the crown having been placed in it properly.

The cross has since been left in this slanted position, and is always depicted as such. The crown as a whole The form of the Holy Crown is identical to that of the kamelaukion-type crowns with closed tops introduced in the Byzantine Empire. The use of many pictures is also typical of Byzantine crowns. Legal personality concept of the crown The crown's raw gold and jewelry value was assessed at a mere 20, gold forints in the early 19th century, but its artistic value and spiritual power are immense.

Charles Robert Charles I of Hungary had to be crowned three times because it was not until he was crowned with the Holy Crown, in , that the coronation was seen as legally binding.

Another, more recent, example of the powers of the Crown is the fact that inter-war Hungary — after the last Habsburg king of Hungary, Charles IV, tried and failed to retain the throne in — remained a kingdom without a king until In such times the Virgin Mary would be considered a formal monarch of Hungary, but this venue was not pursued due to regent Horthy's Protestant faith.

The concept was used to push Hungary toward a rightist regime intent on re-securing the Lands of Saint Stephen, a course which ultimately tied the country to Hitler's Third Reich and ended in severe World War II destruction. The present day use of the Holy Crown in Hungarian state heraldry and official papers is still controversial with neighbouring countries who continue to suspect that it represents Magyar intentions to reclaim the lost territories of the former Kingdom of Hungary.

People of Hungary generally respect the crown as a symbolic reminder of the nation's successful survival through a millennium of turbulent central European history, but are deeply divided over the conservative political movements' efforts to claim specific powers for the crown. After taking Christianity, the Hungarians defended Europe from many Asian invasions, gave many Saints to the Roman Church, and established many institutions, including Europe's oldest educational monastery at Pannonhalma.

Origin of the crown According to the most accepted theory, which is represented in the publications of the Hungarian Academy of Sciences and also of the Hungarian Catholic Episcopal Conference[1], the Holy Crown of Hungary consists of two main parts: The crowning of Stephen I, the first king of Hungary, who was later canonized Saint Stephen, marks the beginning of Hungarian statehood.

The date is variously given as Christmas or 1 January One version of the origin of the crown is written by bishop Hartvik between , whereas the "Pope" has sent King Stephen I. No matter how much Astrik was hurrying, the Polish king, Mieszko I's envoy was quicker, and the crown was prepared for the Polish king. According to Acts And the people gave a shout, saying, It is the voice of a god and not of a man.

And immediately the angel of the Lord struck him, because he gave not God the glory; and he was eaten by worms, and gave up the Spirit. Regensburg Ratisbona , the celebrated and memorable free city on the Danube, was built by Tiberius Nero in the year Jesus Christ suffered for the salvation of the human race; and at one time it was the capital city of Bavaria. In ancient times this region was occupied by the Norici, for which reason a portion of it is still called Norica to this day. After the Norici came the Baioaria; and it is now called Bavaria.

This same Bavarian name originated from the Boii,[Boii, one of the most powerful of the Celtic people, said to have originally dwelt in Gaul Transalpine , but in what part of the country is uncertain. At an early time they migrated in two great swarms, one of which crossed the Alps and settled in the country between the Po and the Apennines; the other crossed the Rhine and settled in that part of Germany called Boihemum Bohemia after them, and between the Danube and the Tyrol. The Boii in Germany were subdued by the Marcomanni, and expelled from the country.

They were subsequently called Norici by the Romans after their capital Noreia. Although, according to Strabo, this region was at one time a wilderness, it is now built up, and has renowned cities and noble fortifications. But of these Regensburg excels all others in beauty. In Bavaria there are five episcopal cities. The capital is the archi-episcopal city of Salzburg, so called from the river on which it lies. The ancients called it Juvanum or Juvavia , that is, Helffenburg.

The bishopric of Regensburg was very celebrated, and all of Bohemia was subject to it. The city has seven names: Firstly, it is named Tiberina, or Tiburina, after its builder; for Tiberius, son of Livia, the wife of Augustus, and step-son of Augustus, was sent by Augustus with a great army against the Norici, or Bavarians, and against the Vindelici.

He subdued them; and he built the city; and after him it was called Tiberina. Secondly, for some time the city was called Quadrata, the square city; for it was built in that form and was surrounded by a wall of large square stones, of which remains may be seen behind St. The Danube, Nab, and Regen flow into one another toward the north. Fourthly, it was called Germansheim, after the German people who frequented the city; or after Germanicus, who ruled over the city. Fifthly, Reginopolis, or Koenigsburg, because kings and princes assembled there, as the palatial towers and tall buildings of the lords indicate.

Sixthly, it was named after the river Imber in German, Regen ;[ Imber , the Latin for rainwater; water or liquid in general; a rain cloud or storm cloud. The German regen means rain. For it the city was named Regensburg, which name has remained to this day. Seventhly, it is called Ratisbona, after the small merchant vessels or boats that came there, and the vessels that during the war laid about it for protection in the time of Charlemagne. And the city was strengthened with fortifications, and is to this day is called Ratisbona in the Latin.

It flows by this renowned city, and over it is a very strong bridge with many arches built in the year of the Lord one thousand one hundred and fifteen. The most Christian emperor, Charlemagne Karolus Magnus , subjugated the whole of Bavaria by force of arms; but Taxillo Taxilo , the Duke of Bavaria, together with his neighbors, the Huns, made war against Charlemagne. Before long he made peace with them, receiving a number of hostages. And he turned against the city of Regensburg and the unbelievers in it, capturing the city and compelling them to accept the Christian faith.

In the same war a great number of unbelievers and Huns were slain before Regensburg. Charlemagne lost a number of men there, who lie buried in the Basilica of St. Peter outside the city. Afterwards this city greatly prospered and increased, and was thereafter adorned with an episcopal church dedicated to St. Before that time it was called the church of St.

Many fictions have grown up around his name; for example, that he anointed Clovis with oil from the sacred ampulla, and that Pope Hormisdas had recognized him as primate of France. The city is also adorned with a large cloister, that of St. Emmeran, of the Benedictine Order.

Here also are two abbeys to Our Lady, an upper and a lower, and in the lower, Bishop Erhard lies at rest. Many houses in this city have consecrated churches and their own priests. Emperor Arnolfus, out of particular affection for this city above all other cities of the realm, enlarged it with a wall, comprehending the cloister of St. Emmeran, which he beautified.

Then, as he returned from battle between the Normans and the Bavarians, he gave the relics of St. Dionysius the Areopagite to this cloister in his old age, together with a beautiful book of Gospels written in letters of gold; and finally he was buried there. This city is glorified by the esteemed martyr St. Emmeran, the bishop, and with St. Wolfgang, the eleventh bishop of the city, who worked wonders there and built St. So also Albertus Magnus, a man highly informed in learning and all the arts, officiated here as bishop. Regensburg, or Ratisbona, a very ancient city in that part of Bavaria, formerly called Rhaetia secunda, is a city and Episcopal see of Germany, and the capital of the government district of the Upper Palatinate.

It is situated on the right bank of the Danube, opposite the influx of the Regen, 86 miles northeast of Munich, and 60 miles southeast of Nuremberg. The pre-Roman settlement of Radespona was chosen by the Romans, who named it Castra Regina, as the center of their power on the upper Danube. It was made an Episcopal see in the eighth century by Boniface, and from the eleventh to the fourteenth century it was one of the most flourishing and populous cities of Germany.

It became the seat of the dukes of Bavaria and was the focus from which Christianity spread over southern Germany. Emmeran founded an abbey here in the seventh century.

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Regensburg acquired the freedom of the empire in the thirteenth century. It became the chief seat of the trade with India and the Levant, and the boatmen of Regensburg are frequently heard of expediting the journeys of the Crusaders. Numerous imperial diets were held here in the Middle Ages, and from to it was the permanent seat of the Imperial Diet. The Reformation found only temporary acceptance at Regensburg, and was met by a counterreformation inspired by the Jesuits. Before this time the city had almost wholly lost its commercial importance owing to changes in the great highways of trade.

Regensburg is said to have suffered in all no fewer than 17 sieges. By the peace of Luneville it was adjudged to the primate Dalberg, and in the town and bishopric were ceded to Bavaria, after the disastrous defeat of the Austrians beneath its walls the preceding year, when part of the town had been reduced to ashes. Its foundations were laid in , but the building was not completed until The two towers, each feet high, according to the woodcut, were in course of construction when the Chronicle was issued and were not completed until The structural arrangement of the interior resembles that of the Strasbourg Minster.

The sumptuous high altar is entirely covered with silver. In the cloisters, adorned with ornate windows, are the tombs of cannons and wealthy citizens. The oldest Christian structures date back to the Carolingian period, and for the student of the art history of the early Middle Ages Regensburg is almost as important as Nuremberg is for the subsequent centuries. Some of the numerous ancient owners, and the mansions of the old patrician families, with their towers of defense, dating from the 13th century, are a reminiscence of early German civic.

The Dominican Church, begun in and completed in , is a well-proportioned early Gothic edifice; while the former old Benedictine Abbey of St. Emmeran is one of the oldest in Germany. Built in the 13th century, and remarkable as one of the few German churches with a detached belfry, the beautiful cloisters of the ancient abbey, one of the oldest in Germany, are still in fair preservation. In its conventual buildings were converted into a palace for the prince of Thurn and Taxis, hereditary postmaster-general of the Holy Roman Empire.

Next to it is the Church of St. Emmeran, with the tombs of the martyr St. In place of the seven-line poem that concludes the description of Regensburg in the Latin text of the Chronicle, the German edition offers the following sentences in prose: Erhard, are here treasured up. Thus this city may indeed be deservedly happy in its possession of these holy patrons and fathers before the Almighty God. A large two-page woodcut. In the foreground is the Danube, on which the city is located at the influx of the Regen.

It is a well-fortified place. Shipping is indicated by a number of flat-bottom boats loaded with merchandise in barrels. Two bridges mentioned in the text. To defend the Danube the Romans extened a line of fortifications—the limes , as they were called, which began at Regensburg, and keeping well to the north of the river, were carried to the neighborhood of Stuttgart.

A circular stonewall on this side of the river contains a drawbridge which leads to a gate, above which are the armorial bearings of the city—keys crossed in a field of red. The unfinished church of St. Peter appears in the center of the city. From one point of the wall chains extend to a peculiar side-wheeler, apparently used for stretching these chains across the river for defense. Vienna of Pannonia is a widely celebrated city in Austria, and is situated on the river Danube. This same river divides Bavaria, Austria and Hungary.

Among these cities none are as wealthy, well populated or ancient as Vienna, the principal city and capital of the country. The city was formerly as one discovers in the ancient ducal privileges called Flavianum, after Flavius, the prefect who governed this region and began the city; or, after Flavius, the emperor, who proceeded to the Danube to establish the boundaries of the Roman Empire; and, in part the city is said to have received its name from him.

Now when the Germans speak of Flavianum, they use the abbreviated form, Flavienn. And so, not without reason, the first syllable Fla as otherwise often written , was discarded, and so Vienn Wienn remained. For that reason this city was accordingly called Vienna. But some are of the opinion that the city was named after the little river Vienna which flows between it and the suburbs. This great and mighty city, according to the circuit of its walls, has a circumference of two thousand paces, and has large and spacious suburbs, protected by moat and mound.

The city has tall stout battlements and is provided with many towers and defenses against war. Here are also large and beautiful residences of its citizens, secure, strong and tall; but many of the houses are roofed with unsightly shingles, and but few with tiles. The other buildings are of stone masonry. Some are painted, so that they shine inside and out. Every house as you enter it gives the impression of a princely residence. The houses of the nobles and the church officials are public.

Here also are to be seen large and illustrious buildings of stone erected to the honor of the Almighty God and the saints; and wonderful consecrated church edifices containing statuary. Many costly relics are covered with gold, silver and precious stones; and there are highly ornate churches. The city is located in the bishopric of Pataviensis;[The German edition of the says Passau.

Here also are the four orders of the Mendicants; also the Scottish brothers and St. Also the Cloister of the Virgin, and that of St. Jerome, in which are received common sinful women who have been converted, and who day and night sing the praises of God in the German tongue. Those who relapse into sin. But here they lead a virtuous and holy life, so that evil report or slander is seldom heard against them.

In this city there is also a university of the liberal arts; and for the study of the Holy Scriptures and the canon law, newly established by Pope Urban VI. Here assemble a remarkable number of students from Hungary and Upper Germany. It is estimated that about fifty thousand attend Holy Communion. Eighteen men are elected to the Council; also a judge to preside over court matters and legal transactions, and a mayor who assumes civic responsibility. There are no other officials, except those who collect the tax on wine.

They are consulted in all matters, and their tenure is from year to year. An incredible variety of things necessary to human sustenance are brought to this city daily. Many wagons and carts arrive with eggs and crabs; baked bread, meats, fish and fowl, without number, are brought there; but by vespers the supply is exhausted. The grape harvest extends over a period of forty days. Two or three times daily at least three hundred wagons loaded with grapes are on their way, and about twelve hundred horses are employed in the grape harvest daily.

An incredible amount of wine is brought to this city daily, and either consumed or shipped with great care and labor up the Danube, against the current of the river. The wine cellars are so large and deep that it is believed the buildings at Vienna are more underground than above it. The streets and avenues are paved with hard stones, and the pavement is not easily injured by the wheels of the heavily loaded wagons. In the homes clean household utensils are found in great number. Here also are large stables for horses and all kinds of animals; arcades and vaultings everywhere, and large quarters and rooms where one may be secure against the inclemency of winter; everywhere there are transparent windows.

The doors are generally of iron. The songs of many birds are heard. Old families are seldom found among the Viennese; for most of them immigrated here, or are foreigners. But after King Matthias died, the emperor Frederick, now well along in years, recovered Vienna through his son, King Maximilian. Vienna was originally the ancient town of Vindobona, or Vendobona, located on the Danube in Upper Pannonia. Although originally a Celtic place, it afterward became a Roman municipum , as we learn from inscriptions. According to Ptolemy, for some time the town bore the name of Juliobona.

It was situated at the foot of Mount Cetius, on the road running along the right bank of the river, and in the course of time became one of the most important military stations on the Danube; for after the decay of Carnuntum it was not only the station of the principal part of the Danubian fleet, but also of the Legio X Gemina the twin legion, was one of the four legions used by Julius Caesar in 58 BCE, for his invasion of Gaul in the 2nd century CE. During the period of the Great Migrations and the succeeding centuries the traces of Vienna are lost; but tradition ascribes the foundation of St.

Rupprecht being older still. After the establishment of the Ostmark Austria it revived. In "Wienne" is mentioned as a "small civitas. Stephen Stephansdom was founded, and a commercial town grew up about it. Later, under the Babenberger, Vienna became an important trading center, as well as the center of a brilliant court life and an important school of lyric poetry.

The great epics of the Niebelungen and Gudrun were composed near its walls. Many monastic orders were established and many churches built. Albert, the first Habsburg to enter Vienna, came into immediate conflict with the city, which he invested and forced to capitulate, annulling many of its privileges.

The era of the earlier Habsburgs was generally unfortunate; the plague, the visitations of robbers and mercenary soldiers, the financial crisis and monetary depreciation, and the ceaseless internecine wars of the Habsburgs, hit the city very hard; yet it remained a wealthy and important center, and some of the Habsburgs were its generous patrons, notably Rudolph IV who founded the university in , and did much toward the reconstruction of the cathedral of St. Under Frederick IV Vienna at first preserved neutrality; but it was the center of the movement against Frederick led by Eiczing, and after Archduke Albrecht had twice stormed the city in , a radical opposition was formed, and Frederick was besieged in the Hofburg Matthias Corvinus of Hungary, after taking Vienna, made it his residence.

Toward Carpatian Divinity

In Vienna had to stand a siege from the Turkish troops. The suburbs were deserted, and more and more of the inhabitants crowded into the old town. The second siege of Vienna by the Turks, in , was the indirect cause of the appearance of the characteristic Viennese coffee houses or cafes, almost simultaneously with another less characteristically Viennese product of the Orient — the lilac, planted in Vienna, to spread from there over western Europe. The disappearance of the Turkish danger ushered in a time of rapid expansion. The Hofburg was rebuilt, its library and stables constructed, together with a number of buildings in sumptuous baroque style.

The architecture of the later 18th century is by comparison sober and practical. The reign of Francis I created the typical Viennese of tradition: Then came the Revolution of Again Vienna suffered a siege; this time from the troops of its own emperor, by whom it was quickly reduced. The modern period under Franz Joseph saw another transformation.

The old ramparts were leveled, the great Ringstrasse built in their place. A great number of new buildings were erected. In the latter half of the 19th century the population increased rapidly. The municipality again became a powerful political and cultural force. In the foreground is the Danube, not depicted as a great river, but as a sluggish little creek, in which two geese are disporting themselves.

The water cannot be very deep, for their entire bodies appear above the surface of the water. They look stolid enough to be wooden decoys. Beyond a wild scrubby shore is the city wall, rather shy of turrets and towers. The houses are closely set together, and beyond it appears the open country, hilly and rocky. A tall church steeple appears at the right, surmounted by a sketchy figure resembling an eagle with outspread wings. To the right is a church, whose steeple is surmounted with a nondescript figure. Except for the churches, the architecture is decidedly monotonous.

Of the vineyards, concerning which the text has so much to say, there is not a sign, and there is no commerce on the meager river. The vegetation along the river is sparse and blasted, and most of the trees about the landscape resemble puffballs. We have before us one of the most important woodcuts in the entire Chronicle.

It covers two full pages, verso and recto. And here, of course, we have a right to expect the designer to be perfectly at ease in his own hometown. As we proceed to the left we meet a pedestrian, staff in hand, and burdened with a large basket that is strapped to his back, such as was used in those days and for centuries later in the delivery of wares or merchandise. He is approaching three wayside crosses—the central one representing the cross upon which Jesus was crucified, as is indicated by the symbolical spear and sponge.

The circle in the center of the cross no doubt represents the crown of thorns, and above it is the board upon which the inscription was placed. Beyond this is a wayside shrine—a stone monument inscribed with a suggestion of the crucifixion. Further on we meet a man in armor whose steed prances along in the direction of the city gate, probably bound for the Castle. As we anticipate his course, we come upon a bent old lady, hobbling along by the aid of a walking stick, under her heavily loaded basket.

As we approach the city gate, we note the coat of arms of the city of Nuremberg above it. This portal is reached by means of the rather flimsy wooden bridge over the moat that surrounds the walled city. Looking closely, we note that there are two walls, both bristling with towers, bastions and other defenses. We may not be able to count towers with which the Chronicle credits the city, but the woodcutter has given us the idea that there must have been a great number of these, many square, some round. To the right the river Pegnitz enters through another gate, which is protected by a portcullis.

As we gaze upon the city we see that it is built upon a slope, in fact a series of slopes, in the midst of a sandy plain, which is some feet above the sea. The moat that we must cross was originally feet wide and 50 feet deep. As we pass through the gate we come upon numerous steeply gabled buildings, most of which are covered with red tile. We enter a labyrinth of crooked narrow streets, and feel an ambition to climb the hill that culminates in a varied group of buildings on the Castle rock. But we are certain of the old Castle on the summit of the hill, with its formidable outbuildings and towers.

To the left, silhouetted against the horizon, are the twin spires of the churches of St. Sebald, of which something is said in the succeeding text and the accompanying notes. At the inception of their career as city builders the Germans settled about isolated strongholds, or fastnesses. Until the Carolingian period agriculture and the chase sustained them and sat in office isfied their needs. They had little or no trade, nor were they much interested in commerce.

Even much later than the Roman incursions they were rather averse to living in walled-up towns. Although they had before them the Roman colonies and their foundations, such as Cologne Colonia , Mainz Maguncia , Metz Metis , Augsburg Augusta , and Regensburg Ratisbona , only few of the inhabitants in earlier times decided to stay or live there.

They called the inhabitants of these towns burghers , and the place a burg: The year period from the 10th to the 14th century was one of great civic activity for German-speaking lands.

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No less than cities sprang up within that time. Many castles had been built by the nobility, and in the wake of Christianity came bishoprics, monasteries, churches and shrines, all of which attracted multitudes and stimulated the creation and growth of communities about them. The development of the medieval city was not according to any fixed plan. Although in the 18th century and later it was considered preferable to locate towns in level country, the medieval builder preferred a rugged and picturesque topography, showing a decided preference for elevated ground. No doubt greater security was also a factor in this choice.

The old city of Nuremberg slopes up to considerable heights on either side of the river. These cities were often massively circumscribed with their walls and fortifications. The residences and places of business are closely crowded together about the public buildings and churches—a point emphasized by our woodcut. Nuremberg is a city very much celebrated throughout Germany, as well as among foreign people; and it is extensively visited. It is a celebrated manufacturing center of Germany, and is adorned with beautiful public and private buildings.

A very old royal castle, located on a hill or mount dominates the city, and from it one has a view of the city and beyond. Some are of the opinion that the city has its name from this castle. The origin and name of Nuremberg are both involved in obscurity. The forms of the name — Nourenberg, Nourimperc, Nuernberg, Nuremberc, etc.

Our author has drawn upon the name of Drusus Nero Neronesberg ; and, enlarging upon the probable origin of the city, states that it has been attributed to a camp or citadel established there by Tiberius Claudius Nero Neronesberg , and named for himself. However, there is no evidence of Roman colonization. The Heidenturm — the Pagan Tower of the Castle — is so called from some carvings on its walls, which were once called idols.

One writer maintains that this was an ancient temple to Diana, insisting that the carvings are figures of dogs and two male figures with clubs, who must be Hercules and his son Noricus—hence Norixberg. However, the figures are not dogs but lions, and the male figures are saints or Israelite kings, and not pagan images. Others suggest that Noriker, driven out by the Huns, settled here and laid the foundation of the city. There is no authority to support these speculations, many of which are forced and unnatural.

Chroniclers seem to have proceeded on the theory that origins must be accounted for in some manner, though the question may be of little consequence and the facts of history offer no solution. As Cecil Headlam, in The Story of Nuremberg, observes, the history of the city begins in the year , the silence regarding the place indicating that the castle did not exist until and was probably built between that year and Afterwards he permitted the Saxons to return home, and with the Bavarians he captured the citadel at Nuremberg.

After besieging it two months or more, he proceeded against Regensburg Ratisbonam , the capital city of the dukedom of Noricum. He was followed by his father, who drove out the bishop Robert, and reinstated Erlongus. And he proceeded to Regensburg, and with assistance, drove his son out of that city, and installed Bishop Ulrich. With the Bohemians he destroyed the march of Theobaldus. On his last visit to Nuremberg Henry found his son in rebellion; and here the old king stopped to gather his forces.

Nuremberg remained loyal to him and took his part, and for that reason the city was oppressed with a siege by the younger Henry in The citizens held out for two months; then came orders from the old emperor to capitulate. He had given up the struggle, and his son, as Henry V, succeeded to the Holy Roman Empire and to the possession of Nuremberg.

And through the subsequent help, revenues, and privileges of King Conrad and other Roman emperors the city again prospered. But now Lothair, Duke of Saxony, of another family, was chosen. He in turn was succeeded by Conrad in It is to the latter that the chroniclers attribute the foundation of the monastery of St. Aegidius on the site of the chapel said to have been built by Charlemagne.

The city was also adorned with substantial residences. Nuremberg is in the heart or Germany. Under imperial laws it has the benefit of a council and a mayor, distinguished from the commons; for citizens of ancient and honorable ancestry have the care of civic matters, and the community awaits their judgment. It has large and elegant church edifices; two parish churches, St. Legend relates that he was born in the beginning of the eighth century, a son of an unnamed Christian king.

In his youth he learned to love and fear Jesus, and at 15 enrolled at Paris as a student of theology, there eclipsing his older classmates. He returned home full of wisdom and honors, and was betrothed to a beautiful and virtuous maiden. But he left her and his parents for the life of a hermit.

Fifteen years passed and he went to Rome from where the pope dispatched him to preach the gospel with Saints Willibald and Wunibald. And it came to pass that they were hungry and weary, exhausted by storm and wind. But on the prayers of Sebald an angel brought them bread. They journeyed to Vicenta, when Sebald, moved by the Holy Spirit, would go no farther, but abode as a hermit in the wood.

His fame spread and people flocked to hear the Word of God from his lips. When an unbeliever scoffed at him, Sebald prayed for a sign, and the earth opened and the scoffer sank up to his neck. The hermit interceded for him and he was delivered, he and many other unbelievers immediately afterwards embracing the faith. Sebald left Italy for Ratisbona Regensberg , bringing the gospel into the wilds of Germany; and there he stayed for a short time.

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As last he came to Nuremberg and settled there in the forest, in the heart of the Franconian people, teaching the Word of God and working miracles. At one time he sought shelter in the house of a poor but churlish craftsman. It was winter and the wind howled over the frozen marshes of the Pegnitz.

Finally he asked her to bring the cluster of icicles that hung from the roof and to put them on the fire, if she would not bring the bundle of twigs to start the fire. In the sight of this miracle the host gave the hermit a warmer welcome, and to make amends, left and bought some fish in the market, contrary to the regulations of the authorities, and, being caught, was blinded; but the hermit restored his sight. Many other miracles were attributed to the ashes and relics of this saint, which lie in the beautiful shrine of St. Headlam in his observes, "Nothing in the Middle Ages was more conducive to the prosperity of a town than the reputation of having a holy man within its borders, the possession of miracle working relics of a saint.

Elizabeth made Marburg, so St. Sebald proved a potent attraction at Nuremberg. As early as and we hear of pilgrimages to Nuremberg in honor of her patron saint. Lorenz Laurentio ,[ St. Lorenzkirche Church of Saint Lawrence , according to tradition, stands on the site of an older Romanesque chapel that bore the name of Holy Sepulchre. It was erected for the spiritual needs of the inhabitants whose houses first began to be built on this side of the Pegnitz.

As it now stands, the church dates almost entirely from the latter part of the Middle Ages. It was begun in but not compuntil Its two towers are feet in height and terminate in octagonal stories and spires. As the tope of the square portions of the towers are wide openings, divided by many mullions, suggesting the gridiron on which Lawrence was roasted.

It is not clear why this church was dedicated to a Spanish saint. The pious virgins have two cloisters here, dedicated to Saint Catherine and to Saint Clara. The German lords also have a large area in this city. Here is also a Carthusian monastery, large and magnificent; also a regal well-adorned structure to the most Holy Virgin Mary; and there is a beautiful spring in the marketplace. The city enjoys the patronage of St.

Sebald, who in his lifetime brightened the city with his miracles. It is also fortunate in its possession of the royal robe, swords, scepter, and orb, and crown of Charlemagne, and which having been used in the crowning of a Roman emperor, inspire faith through their holiness and because of their antiquity. The city is also particularly fortunate in its possession of the unreplaceable divine spear with which the side of Jesus Christ was opened while on the cross; also with a remarkable piece of the cross, and with other relics esteemed by the entire world, and which, on the thirteenth day after the joys of Easter, have been seen for so many years by crowds of people from various provinces with the highest devotion.

And so in its praise are added:. It lies in the district of Middle Franconia in a sandy, well-cultivated plain, miles by rail northwest from Munich. The city stands on the river Pegnitz, which is here crossed by 14 bridges. The first authentic mention of Nuremberg, which seems to have been called into existence by the foundation of the castle, occurs in a document of ; and about the same period it received from the emperor Henry III permission to establish a mint and a market.

It is said to have been destroyed by the emperor Henry V in , but in the emperor Lothair took it from the duke of Swabia and assigned it to the duke of Bavaria. An imperial officer, styled the burggrave of Nuremberg, became prominent in the 12th century. The town was ruled by patrician families. German monarchs frequently resided and held diets here, and in Frederick II conferred upon it the rights of a free imperial town. Like Augsburg, Nuremberg attained great wealth as an intermediary between Italy and the East on the one hand, and Italy and northern Europe on the other.

Its manufacturers were well known. The town gradually extended its sway over a territory nearly sq. But perhaps the great glory of Nuremberg lies in its claim to be the principal fount of German art. A large proportion of the old German furniture, silver-plate, stoves and the like was made in Nuremberg workshops. The inventions of its inhabitants include watches, the air gun, gunlocks, the terrestrial and celestial globes and the art of wiredrawing.

Nuremberg was the first imperial town to embrace Protestantism about The downfall of the town was accelerated by the illiberal policy of its Patrician rulers. In the city was allowed to maintain its nominal position as a free city, but in it was annexed to Bavaria. A considerable section of the ancient walls and moat still remain; of the bastions which formerly strengthened the walls, nearly are still in situ, and a few of the old gateways have also been preserved. The general type of architecture in the city is Gothic. Most of the private dwellings date from the 16th century, and there are practically none of earlier date than the 15th century.

The roofs are of red tile. The old castle is on the rock on the north side of the town and it dates probably from the early part of the 11th century. The German edition of the Chronicle replaces everything from the phrase "on the thirteenth day…" until the end of the six-line poem in praise of Nuremberg with the following text: The foundation of the holy militant Church upon which the entire superstructure securely rests consists of the holy apostles, whom God chose as the first sacrifice for the salvation of all the people.

They are the basic pillars of the Church, upon which rests that foundation of which Christ is the chief corner-stone; and without these no one can lay any other foundation. Thus the truth, formerly proclaimed by the law and the prophets, was now apostolically trumpeted forth for the salvation of the entire world. For it is written: Their voices have gone forth to all the world.

From them the Church sprang and has been proclaimed to the ends of the earth in the words of the annunciation. By their teachings, miracles, examples, and by their blood they have established the church. For this reason they are deservedly called fathers, founders, builders, ordainers, shepherds, bishops, and pathfinders of the Catholic Church. And although the Lord intended to bestow the sacrament of this gift on all the apostles, he singled out the blessed Peter, and poured forth his bounty upon him as upon a single body; for Peter understood the secret intentions of God, who had revealed to him the indivisible unity.

And so the building of the eternal temple, with its wonderful endowments and the grace of God, rested upon the blessings bestowed upon Peter. With this sanction he so enlarged the church that no human folly or daring has been able to circumvent it; and the gates of hell have not been able to prevail against it. He Jesus said to them, But who do you say I am? And Jesus answered and said to him, Blessed are you, Simon Bar-jona: And I say also to you, that you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church, and the gates of hell shall not prevail against it.

And I will give to you the keys of the kingdom of heaven; and whatsoever you shall bind on earth shall be loosed in heaven. The expression "upon this rock I will build my church," has received many contradictory interpretations through the ages. The Church of Rome has made these words the basis of its claim that Peter was the first pope, and that the long line of popes created by it were his direct successors.

It affirms that the rock is Peter individually; that the commission made him supreme apostle, with authority inherited from him by the bishops of Rome. But this is answered by the contention that each apostle was a rock and a recipient of the keys, and that all were co-equal in power; that were the authority given Peter alone, it must still be shown that this personal prerogative was among the successional attributes conferred upon him. Of course, there is no historical foundation for the claim that Peter was ever a bishop of Rome, and the pretense of a succession from him is mythical.

This woodcut covers an entire page. In the upper center sits Jesus in a robe of ample folds, with the orb surmounted by a cross held on his left knee. His head is encircled by a cruciferous nimbus, that is, one inscribed with a cross, which is a form especially devoted to Christ. Examples where he is without it, or others are with it, are comparatively few. Jesus is at once distinguished from his disciples by its presence. In the illustration before us the cross within the nimbus is floral in detail, the terminals being in the form of lilies, which may have been introduced as symbols of the resurrection.

Note that the nimbi about the heads of the apostles are plain, except that their names are inscribed in them as a convenient form of identification. During the fourteenth century the custom arose of thus placing the name of the wearer within the edge of the nimbus. This practice continued for about years, and may be seen alike in Greek, Italian and German art, except that in the Greek examples the monogram of the person, or some other abbreviated form of his name, is used.

The orb, surmounted with the cross, is introduced as a symbol of spiritual sovereignty. Almost all the English kings, from Edward the Confessor, have the globe in their left hand on their coinage or great seals. The apostles are seated about their Master in a circular group.

It was the custom to thus bestow a certain personality upon such of the apostles. Thus Philip was portrayed as a man of advanced years, John as a youth. But it was no doubt found impossible by such means to clearly distinguish one from another among twelve or more distinct persons; for which reason symbols were assigned to them. These symbols were often the instruments by the use of which the saint suffered martyrdom. No attempt is made by the woodcutter to distinguish any other persons in the picture than Jesus, Peter and Andrew.

And so we must rely upon the inscribed nimbi for the identification of the rest of the apostles. Proceeding downward from St. Peter on the left are John, unbearded, but not as young as he might have been; Thomas, with tousled head and forked beard; Philip, correctly represented as fairly aged; Matthew, a rather stern and haughty looking man; and Jude, designated "S. Judas," who appears rather elated in his devotions. We know that this is not Judas Iscariot for a number of reasons.

In the first place the latter was not a saint. Secondly, because Judas Iscariot, after betraying Jesus, hanged himself, thus eliminating himself from the present occasion. Thirdly, because Matthias was chosen in his place Acts 1: Had Judas Iscariot been introduced there would have been thirteen disciples present. The four corners of the woodcuts are filled in with the symbols of the Evangelists—the angel for Matthew, the lion for mark, the ox for Luke, and the eagle for John.

The complete verse according to the Latin Vulgate is: Et accedens Iesus locutus est eis dicens data est mihi omnis potestas in caelo et in terra. And Jesus, coming, spoke to them, saying: All power is given to me, in heaven and on earth. The inscriptions on the scrolls that circle and wave round about the head of Jesus and the heads of the apostles contain the following Latin version of the Apostolic Creed: Credo in Deum Patrem Omnipotentem, Creatorem caeli et terre. Passus sub Pontio Pilato, crucifixus, mortuus et sepultus, omitted ; descendit ad inferna inferos , tertia die resurrexit a mortuis; ascendit ad caelos; sedet ad dexteram Dei Patris omnipotentis; inde venturus est judicare vivos et mortuos.

Credo in Spiritum Sanctum, Sanctam ecclesiam Catholicam, sanctorum communionem, remissionem peccatorum, carnis resurrectionem, et vitam aeternam. I believe in God the Father Almighty, Creator of heaven and earth. And in Jesus Christ, his only begotten son, our Lord, conceived of the Holy Spirit, and born out of Mary the Virgin; he suffered under Pontius Pilate, and was crucified, dead and buried ; descended into hell; on the third day he rose from the dead, ascended into heaven, and sits at the right hand of God the Father, from where he shall come to judge the living and the dead.

I believe in the Holy Spirit, the holy Catholic Church, the communion of saints, the remission of sins, the resurrection of the flesh, and in life everlasting. It is a tradition that before the apostles dispersed to preach the Gospel in all lands, they assembled to compose this declaration of faith, and that each of them furnished one of the twelve propositions contained in it, in the following order: Credo in Deum Patrem omnipotentem creatorem caeli et terrae.

Et in Jesum Christum Filium ejus unicum, Dominum nostrum. Qui conceptus est de Spiritu Sancto, natus ex Maria Virgine. Passus sub Pontio Pilato, crucifixus, mortuus et sepultus. Descendit ad inferos, tertia die resurrexit a mortuis. Ascendit ad caelos, sedet ad dexteram Dei Patris omnipotentis.

Inde venturus est judicare vivos et mortuos. Credo in Spiritum Sanctum. In the illustration the twelve propositions of the Creed are not attributed in the same order to the various apostles. The highest God and Parent of all things gave a new law to the new believers, and sent a teacher of righteousness from heaven.

This new teacher as has already been stated allowed himself to be nailed to the cross, and there he gave up the spirit. But as he had prophesied that on the third day he would arise from the dead, the Jews feared that the disciples might secretly remove the body and give currency to the belief that Christ had arisen. Therefore they took him from the cross, sealed him in a sepulchre and guarded it securely with soldiers. And he wandered into Galilee and revealed the letter of the Holy Scriptures and the secrets of the prophets, which were before that time not understood by his disciples.

Now after the Lord had given them the gospels, and had ordered the same to be taught in his name, he was surrounded by a cloud that lifted him up into heaven on the fortieth day after his suffering. Now as the apostles and disciples, after the ascension as Luke relates of the apostles came down from the Mount of Olives and arrived at Jerusalem, they went up into an upper room, and there remained in prayer and supplication with the women and Mary, the mother of Jesus, and with his brethren; and day and night they pondered the laws of the Lord and his commandments until they were invested with virtue from on high.

But ten days after his ascension which was the fiftieth day after he arose from the dead , when the disciples were gathered together, they received the blessed gift of the Holy Spirit, which they craved; and soon a voice came from heaven and filled the entire room in which they sat ; and cloven tongues "like as of fire" appeared to them, and all were filled with the Holy Spirit; and they began to speak in various tongues. By virtue of the gift thus received, the apostles fully understood all the things which the prophets had written of Christ, and by common counsel formulated the articles and foundations of our faith.

And Peter, the prince of the apostles, spoke according to the prophecies of Jeremiah, Isaiah and David: I believe in one God, Father Almighty, Creator of heaven and earth. Truly, a virgin will bear a son. James confirmed the prophecy of Iaaiah ; suffered under Pontius Pilate, was crucified and buried Thomas attested the prophecy of Hosea ; descended into hell; on the third day he rose from the dead; James the Greater ascended into heaven, and sits on the right hand of God, the Father Almighty; Philip from where he shall come to judge the living and the dead.

Bartholomew I believe in the Holy Spirit, Matthew the holy Christian Church, Simon, Jude and Matthias the communion of saints, the remission of sins, resurrection of the flesh, and life everlasting. Afterwards the apostles ordained many things in all churches, and made James, the brother of the Lord, a bishop at Jerusalem; for he was a holy man from birth.

He began by celebrating mass in a simple manner by saying the "Our Father," etc. Christian life increased among men and women, and St. Peter chose seven deacons, that is, servants of the Faith—Stephen, Philip, Prochorus Procorus , Nicanor, Timon Tymon , Parmenas, and Nicholas Antiochus—who undertook the tasks assigned to the servants of the church. And so they dispersed themselves into these countries, and laid the foundation of the church. In the name of God, their Master, they performed great and incredible miracles. And he strengthened them in virtue and power in order to augment the establishment and promulgation of the new faith.

The Virgin Mary is seated on a throne surrounded by the apostles, among whom we are able to identify Peter, with rounded beard and bald head, on her left, and possibly Andrew with flowing and divided beard, on her right. The smooth-shaven man in the right foreground is probably the youthful John. Mary appears to be reading and interpreting the Scriptures to the apostles who listen in an attitude of reverence. The Holy Spirit, symbolized by a dove with outspread wings, appears above the head of the Virgin and immediately below the canopy of the throne.

According to the Bible Acts 1: Whether or not the artist here intended to comprehend the subject known as the Descent of the Holy Spirit is not clear. The latter event is recorded in Acts 2: Nor is the interpretation of the Scriptures by Mary born out by the text. The designer was of course influenced by the Maryology of the Middle Ages.

In the Venice Academy is a 14th-century work of art depicting the apostles and the Virgin seated in an enclosure, tongues of fire descending from heaven. A painting in the Vatican attributed to Raphael also shows the Virgin and the apostles seated, with flames of fire standing on their heads. Mary, most glorious and eternal virgin and chaste Mother of God, after the ascension of the Lord Jesus as Luke states in the Gospels , lived a human life in communion with the apostles until they were filled with the spirit of the Holy Spirit.

But after the descent of the Holy Spirit and the dispersion of the apostles as St. Jerome says , the archangel Gabriel, as a celestial emissary, preserved this Holy Virgin untouched in mind and body; while John the Evangelist commended to her by her Son from the cross ,[] was kind to her and dutifully protected this Virgin, the patroness of all virgins, to the end of her life, as her adopted son; and thus she was given an opportunity of seeing all the places where her Son had suffered. On Mount Zion is shown a cave where she lived and where John read the Mass. Although Christ is to be loved by all the people, he was more intensely loved by her whose Lord and Son he was.

She was downcast with much sorrow; and after his ascension, as she quietly and alone contemplated what she had heard, seen and experienced, the intensity of her love for her Son increased. Finally, full of grace, and enlightened by all the virtues, she went to rest in peace in the sixty-third year of her age, and forty-nine years after the birth of Jesus Christ her Son. She had abundantly earned for herself the grace of eternal purity; and this was fully bestowed upon her by her Son, Jesus Christ.

According to the pious writers, all the apostles were present at her burial, according to the will of God; and it is to be believed that our Lord Jesus Christ, together with the entire heavenly host, came forth in jubilation to meet her, and with joy of soul and body took her up into heaven and seated her beside his throne. No one should doubt that the entire heavenly Jerusalem exulted in unspeakable joy and with immeasurable love upon her worthy reception and coronation.

This should not be a matter of amazement, for out of her was born the one whom all the orders in heaven honor and worship. And she was elevated above them into the seat of the majesty of the Lord. Thus the chaste Mother and Virgin was led forth to the throne on high, and with sublime glory was seated next to Christ on the throne of the kingdom.

Peter, the first pope, prince of the apostles, by birth a Galilean of Bethsaida, a son of John,[John, or Jonas, a fisherman. This is the Peter to whom the Lord said: Blessed are you, Simon Bar-jona; for flesh and blood have not revealed it to you, but my Father who is in heaven. And you are Peter, and upon this rock I will build my church. And I will give to you the keys to the kingdom of heaven, and also the power to bind and to loose. There is no evidence in the Bible that Peter had any supremacy over the other apostles, or any successor in that influence naturally accorded to him as one of the oldest, most active, and most faithful of those who "had seen the Lord.

This evil man confronted Peter by a miracle, causing a dead child to appear to move as a consequence of his sorceries; but the child nevertheless remained dead until, at the command of Peter, in the name of Jesus, it arose. From him came the Simonian heretics who pretended to purchase and sell the gift of the Holy Spirit, etc.

And there was a certain man called Simon, who formerly in the same city used sorcery and bewitched the people of Samaria, giving out that he himself was some great one. To him they all gave heed, from the least to the greatest, saying, This man is the great power of God. And to him they had regard because for a long time he had bewitched them with sorceries. But when they believed Philip preaching the things concerning the kingdom of God, and the name of Jesus Christ, they were baptized, both men and women.

Then Simon himself believed as well; and when he was baptized he continued with Philip, and wondered, beholding the miracles and signs that were done. Now when the apostles which were at Jerusalem heard that Samaria had received the word of God, they sent to them Peter and John, who, when they had come down, prayed for them in order that they might receive the Holy Spirit. For as yet he had fallen upon none of them—they were only baptized in the name of the Lord Jesus. Then they laid their hands on them and they received the Holy Spirit. But Peter said to him, Let your money perish with you, because you have thought the gift of God may be purchased with money.

Simon Magus holds the unique position of being branded the one outstanding heretic in the New Testament. Later centuries used the word simony to indicate the crime of procuring a spiritual office by purchase.

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