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Legality varies with local laws. Prostitution in Hong Kong and Prostitution in Macau. Human trafficking in the People's Republic of China. Archived from the original on 29 September Retrieved 18 August China includes Tibet, Hong Kong, and Macau ". United States Department of State. Retrieved 8 May Discrimination, Societal Abuse, and Trafficking in Persons.

Archived from the original on 14 May Archived from the original on 7 January Retrieved on 22 November People's Daily , 22 November Prostitution and Modernity in Twentieth-Century Shanghai. University of California Press. Retrieved 30 November Archived from the original Archived 21 April at the Wayback Machine.

Prostitution Scandals in China: Policing, Media and Society. Retrieved 24 November Archived from the original Archived 13 September at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 2 December International Criminal Justice Review 4 China and Hong Kong: Coalition Against Trafficking in Women. Child Workers in Asia 13 2—3 , Retrieved 3 December This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.

Archived from the original on November 11, Korean women forced into sex slavery" by Carol Anne Douglas. Archived from the original on 11 February Retrieved 17 November United Nations Human Rights Council. Archived from the original on February 27, Archived from the original on July 23, Retrieved February 22, Archived from the original on 18 November Archived from the original on 20 August Retrieved 7 September A Mongolian Legacy For London ".

Intelligence digest, Volume Retrieved 29 February Sources in Lisbon say that Chinese triad gangs from the Portuguese colony of Macau are setting up in Portugal ahead of the handover of Macau to China in Security sources fear that as many as triad members could settle in Portugal. They are already involved in securing Portuguese citizenship for Macau residents by arranging marriages of convenience with Portuguese prostitutes. Retrieved 19 April Human Trafficking in Vietnam".

Ho Chi Minh City. Archived from the original PDF on Archived from the original on 4 March Archived from the original on 30 January Retrieved 1 October Retrieved 5 November A popular contemporary magazine which followed closely the news in the 'flower business' huashi so recorded at least one case of such career advancement that occurred to a Tanka boat-people prostitute in Canton. Correspondence respecting the alleged existence of Chinese slavery in Hong Kong: Volume of C Series Great Britain.

Retrieved 1 November Across Asia from West to East in Retrieved 25 August Retrieved April 5, From Kashgar to Kashmir. Asia Monitor Resource Centre. Retrieved 23 April Archived from the original Archived 15 January at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 23 August Foreign Languages Press Wei Luo, Buffalo, New York: China Daily , 8 February Articles , , , , , Xinhua News Agency, Prostitution offences in contemporary China: Retrieved 25 November University of California Press at Are there any sex workers in China?

RoutledgeCurzon, at International Planned Parenthood Federation. Archived from the original on 21 November Retrieved 28 May Archived from the original on 7 August South China Morning Post. Archived from the original PDF on 12 February Symposium voluntary prostitution Archived 30 January at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved 12 January Crows] Changjiang wenyi chubanshe, Retrieved 26 July Sexuality and gender in China. Book Category Asia portal. Regarding some demographic factors associated with solicitors, a Norwegian study examining solicitors of sex among a random sample of 1, men found more demographic similarities than differences between men who have and have never purchased sex Hoigard and Finstad, In a study, the National Council for Crime Prevention conducted 53 international interviews with professionals knowledgeable about human trafficking, including government authorities, law enforcement personnel, representatives of nongovernmental organizations, and social services personnel, as well as facilitators, such as taxi drivers and hotel staff Englund.

According to the descriptive report on this study, sex buyers were a heterogeneous group. While the solicitors described in the report ranged in age, the majority were between 30 and 50 years old, had regular employment, and had a college education; almost half were married or in a long-term relationship and had children. Farley and colleagues studied the attitudes, behaviors, and demographic characteristics of men who were seeking prostitutes in Scotland. These men, recruited through newspaper advertisements seeking men who were clients of prostitutes, were interviewed about their frequency of purchasing sex and then categorized into those who purchased sex frequently i.

Another descriptive study examined the motives and sexual preferences of U. Although limited by convenience sampling, this study found that the most of those men were married or partnered Some reports argue that those designing preventive measures to address solicitors must acknowledge that individual factors contributing to the solicitation of sex are strongly associated with societal and cultural attitudes and beliefs about sex and that demand cannot necessarily be addressed at the individual level alone Claude, ; The Schapiro Group, ; Shively et al.

Specifically, a review by Ben-Isreal and Levenkron points out that in some cultures, purchasing sex is a normal sexual behavior of men. In Thailand, for example, it is common for men to have sex for the first time with a prostitute Ben-Israel and Levenkron, Given the broad range of factors associated with men purchasing sex, additional research is needed to help support or refute the reasons currently proposed for why men buy sex and more important, the motivators for purchasing sex with minors, to better explain the biological, social, and cultural influences on this behavior.

With respect to U. There were no demographic differences between the two groups; however, those who were described as more frequent solicitors i. Those who had purchased sex at all had attitudes reflecting indifference to the risk and harm to women who were prostituted Chicago Coalition for the Homeless, In contrast, in a study that compared men who had purchased sex in the United States with a nationally representative sample of men, the former men were significantly less likely to be married and were more likely to be unhappy in their marriage if they were Monto and McRee, Although most of the demographic characteristics of men who solicit are not measurably different from those of the general population of men who do not purchase sex Farley et al.

Monto and McRee found that men who had solicited sex were more likely to have liberal attitudes toward sex e. Further research is necessary to clarify some of these demographic variations. Most of the research examining demographic characteristics of solicitors e. Final Report [Shively et al. Although a handful of reports focus on solicitors more broadly, few peer-reviewed studies examine specific risk factors that contribute to the solicitation of minors for sex or explore why men may want to purchase sex from underage victims. One exception is the Georgia Demand Study, an attempt to quantify and describe the demand for commercial sexual exploitation of children in Georgia The Schapiro Group, Respondents were not aware that they were part of a research project.

Nearly half of the men who wished to purchase sex were aged , and just under half expressed willingness to pay for sex with a young female even when they were certain she was an adolescent. Based on these findings, the authors conclude that most men who exploit adolescent females may not know or may be willing to ignore the possibility that they may be having sex with an underage victim. Further, based on the results from their sample, the authors estimate the number of men who purchase sex with females under 18 The Schapiro Group, Several methodological concerns suggest extreme caution in evaluating the conclusions of this study.

In addition to being based on a convenience sample of volunteers, the study provides no details about the respondents; thus the generalizability of this research is unclear. The authors note that the sample showed diversity in terms of age, geographic location, experience with purchasing sex, and sex purchase preferences; however, they give no specifics regarding these sample characteristics The Schapiro Group, While the study respondents expressed a willingness to pay to the telephone operator i.

Finally, because the method used to estimate the number of men who purchase sex from underage women is not presented, the assumptions underlying the estimate are unknown, and the reliability of the estimate cannot be evaluated. Evidence indicates that the overwhelming majority of individuals who solicit minors for sex are not pedophiles i. A few reports suggest the need to examine potential deterrents to buying sex, but none describe deterrents to soliciting sex with minors.

Further discussion of laws related to the solicitation and purchase of sex with minors is provided in Chapter 4. In addition, none of the available research conducted nationally or internationally examines women as potential solicitors. Thus, the degree to which factors contributing to behaviors related to soliciting sex are due to biological, social, or cultural factors or a combination thereof is unclear. A report resulting from the first World Congress Against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children points out that, although direct scientific data are sparse, there is little doubt that the sexual exploitation of children results in serious, often life-long, and sometimes life-threatening consequences for the physical, psychological, and social health and development of the child see World Congress Against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children, The report also asserts that the health of victims of commercial sexual exploitation should be defined in terms of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not just the absence of disease see http: Thus, a comprehensive understanding of the impact of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors includes health, developmental, and legal consequences, as well as the risks of reexploitation and further victimization.

In addition, commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking are themselves a health problem given the physical and emo-. However, a comprehensive understanding of the impact of these crimes remains elusive. For example, Heilemann and Santhiveeran conducted a content analysis of existing research on experiences and coping strategies among prostituted female adolescents.

Their analysis reviewed 31 quantitative and qualitative studies in 22 countries published between and Many characteristics of the studies varied considerably, including sample size, country of origin, and methodologies. Of the 31 studies included in the content analysis, only 5 included U.

The authors identified a range of physical health e. In addition, about half of the studies in the content analysis described positive coping strategies e. It should be noted that for some of the studies included in the analysis, the samples were small and that, overall, there is no discussion of the statistical strength of the individual study findings. While this analysis offers insights into the experiences and needs of prostituted adolescents and can help inform future research, it also underscores the limitations of the current evidence base on the consequences of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors in the United States.

Because the few domestic studies of the impact of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors focus primarily on psychological trauma, it is necessary to examine research from related fields to understand the potential physical health implications. For example, research on the impact of child abuse on the developing brain shows an association with mental health problems i. Related and relevant research also includes studies of the impact of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking, studies of adults who are or have been involved in the commercial sex trade and survival sex, and international studies of sex trafficking victims.

However, care must be taken not to overgeneralize the findings of this research. In one study, 50 percent of adult women involved in commercial sex work reported having a physical health problem: Women trafficked for sex in the United States had poorer health outcomes than women trafficked internationally and nontrafficked sex workers. While it is difficult to draw any conclusions about underage victims of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking from this research, the long-term health consequences appear to be severe for adult victims who experience continued exploitation Farley and Barkan, In addition, many victims of these crimes are subjected to high rates of violence.

As a result, victims of these crimes may have many of the same physical health problems associated with beating and rape, including broken bones and the need for wound care Clawson and Goldblatt Grace, Research shows that women who were sexually abused as children experience more negative health outcomes in adulthood than women without such a history Bonomi et al. These outcomes can include physical symptoms such as cardiovascular problems, impaired physical functioning, pain, gastrointestinal symptoms, headache, pain syndromes, eating disorders, and disorders characterized as somatization Arnow, ; Drossman et al.

In men, childhood sexual abuse has been associated with cardiovascular problems Fuller-Thomson et al. More research is needed to understand whether similar problems will be found for some victims of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors. Psychosexual dysfunction and reproductive health problems also have been reported among women with a history of sexual abuse, including gynecological disorders, chronic pelvic pain and sexual dysfunction, and sexually transmitted infections Browne and Finkelhor, ; Kinzl et al.

Research focused specifically on victims of commercial sexual exploitation has identified health problems that include infectious diseases, reproductive health problems, premature births, and the physical impacts of violence McClain and Garrity, In an international study of victims of commercial sexual exploitation, researchers found that these victims are at high risk of many infectious diseases and their sequelae Willis and Levy, , including sexually transmitted infections and HIV.

In a report on. Brown and colleagues found that adolescents and young adults with a history of childhood sexual abuse were three times more likely to become depressed or suicidal than individuals without such a history Brown et al. Similarly, Schilling and colleagues found increased rates of depression in young women who had experienced childhood sexual abuse. Studies of adult women who were victims of childhood sexual abuse have shown higher levels of a range of mental health problems and problems in social functioning, including increased rates of PTSD, depression, anxiety, and substance abuse James and Meyerling, ; Rohsenow et al.

Childhood sexual abuse also has been shown to be associated with earlier initiation of injection drug use among adolescent intravenous drug users Ompad et al. Evidence indicates that multiple instances of maltreatment, rather than specific types of maltreatment i. Given documented associations between child sexual abuse and commercial sexual exploitation of minors, this research suggests that victims of commercial.

Indeed, studies of the psychological impact of commercial sexual exploitation among women and adolescents highlight problems that are similar to the aforementioned problems noted in studies of child sexual abuse Brannigan and Van Brunschot, Adolescent victims of commercial sexual exploitation experience more emotional and mental health problems than nonvictims, and several studies indicate that victims of commercial sexual exploitation have long-term psychological sequelae that persist into adulthood Trickett et al.

In addition, service providers report that victims of commercial sexual exploitation show extremely high rates of fear and anxiety; altered relationships with others, including the inability to trust others; and self-destructive behaviors, including suicidality Willis and Levy, Addiction and substance abuse are higher among victims of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking as well. Adolescents and young adults who are victims of commercial sexual exploitation have significantly increased rates of nicotine disorder Al Mamun, and substance abuse Diaz et al.

While prior substance use or abuse is a risk factor for some victims of commercial sexual exploitation, for others it may be a coping mechanism or self-medication for their exploitation Marshall and Hendtlass, A widely accepted clinical literature on adolescents focuses on psychological development and the acquisition of social skills and personal attributes that are necessary to achievement of adult competencies Feldman et al. The emphasis is on developmental tasks that should be mastered during adolescence, in particular, the acquisition of greater independence in social functioning and decision making.

For example, research suggests that youth who experience problems in the academic, conduct i. Schilling and colleagues found compromised social functioning in such areas as work, education, and intimate relationships in young women who had experienced childhood sexual abuse. They also found that adolescent victims of commercial sexual exploitation were more likely than nonvictims to have difficulties in their relationships, including the ability to trust others. These obstacles may be especially pronounced for youth involved in commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking.

In addition, the way the commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors are defined and understood affects which young people have access to support services and legal protections and how victims of these crimes are perceived. Phoenix describes a dichotomous perspective on victims of commercial sexual exploitation. Specifically, young victims who are forced or coerced by third-party exploiters are more likely to be perceived as victims worthy of services and legal protection, while young people who exchange sex for survival are often viewed as willing participants and perceived as unworthy of services and legal protection Chase and Statham, ; Phoenix, Homeless youth face additional challenges in accessing health care and support services.

As they often are older adolescents, they are vulnerable to not being offered social services. A number of studies highlight the difficulties faced by young people trying to exit commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking, including financial difficulties and debt; drug dependency; single parenthood; a lack of education, qualifications, and training for gainful employment; housing problems; criminal convictions e. For example, research suggests that the longer young people are commercially sexually exploited, the more intractable the patterns of behavior that contributed to their vulnerability to exploitation become, making it difficult for them to find a way out.

This phenomenon is particularly evident among women and girls who have lost contact with family and friends, whose most direct peer groups also are involved in commercial sexual exploitation Palmer, ; Taylor-Browne et al. The former victims are at substantial risk of reexploitation in cases in which families are complicit and in which the commercial sexual exploitation has not been identified by social service agencies, schools, police, or health systems and in which, therefore, no child protection intervention has occurred.

Estes and Weiner note that the risks of reexploitation are especially high in families that move frequently to avoid detection by law enforcement and child protection. In families with high levels of domestic violence, substance abuse, mental illness, and risky sexual behaviors, the risks are even higher, especially for postpubescent girls, who become sexual targets for male family members, family associates, and strangers.

For runaway and homeless youth, the risks of continued exploitation have different sources, arising in part from the influence of peer networks and predatory groups of older adolescents and adults. These youth also are highly vulnerable to various forms of violence. Sexually transmitted infections also are common, especially among street youth who exchange sex for money, food, transportation, and other basic survival needs.

The legal consequences for commercially sexually exploited children and adolescents can be multifaceted, long-lasting, and severe. Although this report strongly recommends that these youth be treated as victims and directed away from criminal prosecution and toward effective, long-term, multidisciplinary interventions, these youth may face a variety of criminal charges, including prostitution, delinquency, abuse of illicit substances, burglary, curfew violations, and pandering Adelson, ; Annitto, ; Clawson et al.

These charges may result in their involvement with the juvenile justice and child welfare systems, and in some cases, transfer to the adult criminal justice system, none of which may be optimally suited to addressing their complex and long-term needs, and some of which may result in their having permanent records that impede their ability to transition back into normal adolescent social participation. These youth often face a number of legal hurdles independent of criminal charges, including difficulty in obtaining access to benefits available under a number of state and federal programs, such as the Trafficking Victims Protection Act and the Violence Against Women Act.

One commonly observed barrier to services for these youth is a lack of adequate identification. Victims of commercial sexual exploitation often need safe housing and protection from their exploiters Clawson and Dutch, Minors who were born in the United States but whose parents are present in this country illegally may be particularly reluctant to seek help for fear of causing their parents to be deported. As a result of these and other complex legal challenges, all victims of commercial sexual exploitation need access to informed and effective counsel, typically working in conjunction with case managers.

This sort of assistance, however, is rarely available. Little research has addressed the specific question of whether child victims of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking are more likely than nonvictims to engage in criminal behavior as adults. However, some research suggests an association between commercial sexual exploitation. Research has demonstrated, for example, that after controlling for gender, race, and ethnicity, victims of child sexual abuse are more than twice as likely to be arrested for violent crimes English et al. And a recent systematic review of 20 empirical studies focused on child sexual abuse and juvenile and adult offending by victims of commercial sexual exploitation revealed that victims of child sexual abuse are more likely than the general population to be arrested as adults, albeit more for sex crimes than for violent crimes McGrath et al.

In summary, the available literature shows that child maltreatment, particularly child sexual abuse, has significant negative impacts on the physical health, mental health, and social functioning of adult victims and that among adolescent victims, health risk behaviors and mental health problems are increased. While studies focused on consequences for commercially sexually exploited children and adolescents are rare, the data based on child sexual abuse are useful given evidence that these problems are linked in some cases.

Overall, research suggests that victims and survivors of commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking face developmental, social, societal, and legal consequences that have both short- and long-term impacts on their health and well-being. The summary of the evidence in this chapter draws heavily on related research literatures to complement what is known about commercial sexual exploitation and sex trafficking of minors in the United States. Based on its review of the best available evidence, the committee formulated the following findings and conclusions:.

Despite this overall lack of peer-reviewed evidence on causality, the committee found numerous associations of note, including the following:. Department of Health and Human Services. Child prostitute or victim of trafficking? Thomas Law Journal 6 1: A cluster-analytic study of substance problems and mental health among street youths.

American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse 25 4: Association between childhood sexual abuse and transactional sex in youth aging out of foster care. Child Abuse and Neglect 36 Evidence from a birth cohort study. Depressive characteristics of physically abused children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 17 1: Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city. Consent, coercion, and compassion: Crafting a commonsense approach to commercial sexual exploitation of minors. Yale Law and Policy Review 30 1: Child sexual abuse and sexual revictimization.

Clinical Psychology-Science and Practice 9 2: Relationships between childhood maltreatment, adult health and psychiatric outcomes, and medical utilization.

Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 65 Suppl. Juvenile prostitution and child sexual abuse: Canadian Journal of Community Mental Health 6 1: A study of prevalence in Great Britain. Child Abuse and Neglect 9 4: Abuse, support, and depression among homeless and runaway adolescents.

Journal of Health and Social Behavior 41 4: Children abused through prostitution. Puppet on a string: The urgent need to cut children free from sexual exploitation. Neuropsychological function in children with maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 3: The reported health and functioning of children maltreated while in foster care. Child Abuse and Neglect 20 7: Classes and consequences of multiple maltreatment: Child Maltreatment 16 4: Examining the virtual subculture of johns. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 38 5: Health-risk behaviors and protective factors among adolescents with mobility impairments and learning and emotional disabilities.

Journal of Adolescent Health 28 6: The commercial sexual exploitation of children CSEC. Child Abuse and Neglect 32 7: In search of respect: Selling crack in El Barrio. Human trafficking and technology: A framework for understanding the role of technology in the commercial sexual exploitation of children in the U.

Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences report of annual meeting. Police Chief 49 8: Youthful prostitution and child sexual trauma. International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 20 3: Framing the issues of commercial sexual exploitation of children. Magnetic resonance imaging-based measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood physical and sexual abuse—a preliminary report.

Biological Psychiatry 41 1: Neurological function and HIV risk behaviors of female prison inmates. Journal of Neuroscience Nursing 39 6: Methodological issues in the study of sexual abuse effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 60 2: Childhood abuse and neglect: Specificity of effects on adolescent and young adult depression and suicidality. Impact of child sexual abuse: A review of the research. Psychological Bulletin 99 1: Neighborhood structural inequality, collective efficacy, and sexual risk behavior among urban youth.

Journal of Health and Social Behavior 49 3: Child sex initiation rings. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry 51 1: Development of typologies of traffickers phase II. Development of typologies of traffickers phase I. Human trafficking victims and their children: Assessing needs, vulnerabilities, strengths, and survivorship. Journal of Applied Research on Children: Informing Policy for Children at Risk 2 1. Physiological and cognitive correlates of child abuse.

Attenuation of frontal asymmetry in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder. Biological Psychiatry 50 Predictors of sexually coercive behavior in a nationally representative sample of adolescent males. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 24 7: Self-esteem in abused chemically dependent adolescents.

Child Abuse and Neglect Sexual identity, sex of sexual contacts, and health-risk behaviors among students in grades —youth risk behavior surveillance, selected sites, United States, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report. Surveillance Summaries Washington, DC 60 7: Issues in fertility control for mentally retarded female adolescents: Sexual activity, sexual abuse, and contraception. The commercial sexual exploitation of children and young people: An overview of key literature and data. Girls, delinquency and juvenile justice.

Survival sex work involvement among street-involved youth who use drugs in a Canadian setting. Journal of Public Health 32 3: Chicago Coalition for the Homeless. A survey of men in Chicago. A literature review on the misuse of social networking sites for grooming children for sexual offence. Targeting the sex buyer the Swedish example: Stopping prostitution and trafficking where it all begins.

Addressing the needs of victims of human trafficking: Challenges, barriers, and promising practices. Finding a path to recovery: Residential facilities for minor victims of domestic sex trafficking. Study of HHS programs serving human trafficking victims. Treating the hidden wounds: Trauma treatment and mental health recovery for victims of human trafficking.

Childhood abuse and subsequent sexual assault among female inpatients. Journal of Traumatic Stress 9 3: Posttraumatic stress disorder and extent of trauma exposure as correlates of medical problems and perceived health among women with childhood abuse. Women and Health 34 3: An analysis of adolescent versus adult entry into street prostitution. Sociological Inquiry 81 3: Challenges faced by homeless sexual minorities: Comparison of gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender homeless adolescents with their heterosexual counterparts.

American Journal of Public Health 92 5: Sex trafficking, prostitution and international family planning. The Guttmacher Report on Public Policy 8 1: Abuse of mentally-handicapped adults. British Medical Journal The commercial sexual exploitation of children in New York City. Size, characteristics, and needs. Center for Court Innovation. Education, Prevention, and Policy 12 5: A study of young people, vulnerability and involvement in drug use and sex work.

Street-level sex workers reports of victimization, personal resources and coping strategies. Violence Against Women 9 Developing a deviant identity. In Studies in the sociology of sex , edited by J. Developmental traumatology part I: Biological Psychiatry 45 N-acetylaspartate concentration in the anterior cingulate of maltreated children and adolescents with PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry 7: Superior temporal gyrus volumes in maltreated children and adolescents with PTSD.

Biological Psychiatry 51 7: Brain structures in pediatric maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder: A sociodemographically matched study. Biological Psychiatry 52 Effect of abuse on health: Results of a national survey. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine 8: Magnetic resonance imaging volumes of the hippocampus and the amygdala in women with borderline personality disorder and early traumatization. Archives of General Psychiatry 57 Sexual and physical abuse and gastrointestinal illness: The Church's stance on prostitution was three-fold: The Church used Mary Magdalene's biblical history of being a reformed harlot to encourage prostitutes to repent and mend their ways.

With the advent of the Protestant Reformation , numbers of Southern German towns closed their brothels in an attempt to eradicate prostitution. Ancient codes regulated in this case the crime of a prostitute that dissimulated her profession. In some cultures, prostitutes were the sole women allowed to sing in public or act in theatrical performances. They also worked as sex workers. During the British East India Company 's rule in India in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, it was initially fairly common for British soldiers to engage in inter-ethnic prostitution in India , where they frequently visited local Indian nautch dancers.

In the 19th century, legalized prostitution became a public controversy as France and then the United Kingdom passed the Contagious Diseases Acts , legislation mandating pelvic examinations for suspected prostitutes. This legislation applied not only to the United Kingdom and France, but also to their overseas colonies. France, instead of trying to outlaw prostitution began to view prostitution as an evil necessary for society to function. France chose to regulate prostitution, introducing a Morals Brigade onto the streets of Paris.

A major work, Prostitution, Considered in Its Moral, Social, and Sanitary Aspects , was published by William Acton in , which estimated that the County of London had 80, prostitutes and that 1 house in 60 was serving as a brothel. During this period, prostitution was also very prominent in the Barbary Coast, San Francisco as the population was mainly men, due to the influx from the Gold Rush. The leading theorists of Communism opposed prostitution.

Communist governments often attempted to repress the practice immediately after obtaining power, although it always persisted. In contemporary Communist countries, it remains illegal but is nonetheless common. Originally, prostitution was widely legal in the United States.

Life sentence for prostitute who hammered friend to death in her sleep in Richmond flat

Prostitution was made illegal in almost all states between and largely due to the influence of the Woman's Christian Temperance Union. On the other hand, prostitution generated much national revenue in South Korea, hence the military government encouraged prostitution for the U. While this law did not criminalise the act of prostitution in the United Kingdom itself, it prohibited such activities as running a brothel.

Soliciting was made illegal by the Street Offences Act Beginning in the late s, many states in the US increased the penalties for prostitution in cases where the prostitute is knowingly HIV-positive. Penalties for felony prostitution vary, with maximum sentences of typically 10 to 15 years in prison. Sex tourism emerged in the late 20th century as a controversial aspect of Western tourism and globalization. In the 21st century, Afghans revived a method of prostituting young boys which is referred to as " bacha bazi ".

Since the break up of the Soviet Union , thousands of eastern European women end up as prostitutes in China, Western Europe, Israel, and Turkey every year; some enter the profession willingly, but many are tricked, coerced, or kidnapped, and often experience captivity and violence. India's devadasi girls are forced by their poor families to dedicate themselves to the Hindu goddess Renuka.

The BBC wrote in that devadasis are "sanctified prostitutes". Historically , and currently, church prostitutes exist, and the practice may be legal or illegal, depending on the country, state or province. She quotes the Oxford encyclopedia of modern Islamic world to differentiate between marriage nikah and Mut'ah, and states that while nikah is for procreation, mut'ah is just for sexual gratification.

It means that if a woman marries a man in this way and has sex, she has to wait for a number of months before marrying again and therefore, a woman cannot marry more than 3 or 4 times in a year. Prostitutes' salaries and payments fluctuate according to the economic conditions of their respective countries. Prostitutes who usually have foreign clients, such as business travelers, depend on good foreign economic conditions. In some countries, there is controversy regarding the laws applicable to sex work.

Life sentence for prostitute who hammered friend to death in her sleep

For instance, the legal stance of punishing pimping while keeping sex work legal but "underground" and risky is often denounced as hypocritical; opponents suggest either going the full abolition route and criminalize clients or making sex work a regulated business. Many countries have sex worker advocacy groups which lobby against criminalization and discrimination of prostitutes. These groups generally oppose Nevada-style regulation and oversight, stating that prostitution should be treated like other professions.

Other groups, often with religious backgrounds, focus on offering women a way out of the world of prostitution while not taking a position on the legal question. Prostitution is a significant issue in feminist thought and activism. Many feminists are opposed to prostitution, which they see as a form of exploitation of women and male dominance over women, and as a practice which is the result of the existing patriarchal societal order. These feminists argue that prostitution has a very negative effect, both on the prostitutes themselves and on society as a whole, as it reinforces stereotypical views about women, who are seen as sex objects which can be used and abused by men.

Other feminists hold that prostitution can be a valid choice for the women who choose to engage in it; in this view, prostitution must be differentiated from forced prostitution , and feminists should support sex worker activism against abuses by both the sex industry and the legal system. In February , the members of the European Parliament voted in a non-binding resolution, adopted by votes to ; with abstentions , in favor of the 'Swedish Model' of criminalizing the buying, but not the selling of sex. The position of prostitution and the law varies widely worldwide, reflecting differing opinions on victimhood and exploitation , inequality , gender roles , gender equality , ethics and morality , freedom of choice , historical social norms , and social costs and benefits.

Legal themes tend to address four types of issue: Prostitution may be considered a form of exploitation e. The legal status of prostitution varies from country to country, from being legal and considered a profession to being punishable by death. In , the UN General Assembly adopted a convention stating that "prostitution and the accompanying evil of the traffic in persons for the purpose of prostitution are incompatible with the dignity and worth of the human person", [] requiring all signing parties to punish pimps and brothel owners and operators and to abolish all special treatment or registration of prostitutes.

As of January , the convention was ratified by 95 member nations including France, Spain, Italy, Denmark, and not ratified by another 97 member nations including Germany, the Netherlands, the United Kingdom and the United States. In countries where prostitution is legal, advertising it may be legal as in the Netherlands or illegal as in India. Covert advertising for prostitution can take a number of forms:.

In the United States, massage parlors serving as a cover for prostitution may advertise "full service", a euphemism for coitus. In Las Vegas , prostitution is often promoted overtly on the Las Vegas Strip by third party workers distributing risque flyers with the pictures and phone numbers of escorts despite the fact that prostitution is illegal in Las Vegas and Clark County , see Prostitution in Nevada.

Prostitution - Wikipedia

The way in which prostitutes advertise their presence varies widely. Some remain in apartments which have hints or clues outside such as posters with "model" written on them to lure potential customers inside. Others advertise by putting numbers or location in phoneboxes or in online or newspaper ads. In more sexually permissive societies, prostitutes can advertise in public view, such as through display windows. In sexually restrictive societies it may occur through word-of-mouth and other means.

A difficulty facing migrant prostitutes in many developed countries is the illegal residence status of some of these women. They face potential deportation, and so do not have recourse to the law. Hence there are brothels that may not adhere to the usual legal standards intended to safeguard public health and the safety of the workers. The immigration status of the persons who sell sexual services is — particularly in Western Europe — a controversial and highly debated political issue.

Survival sex is when the prostitute is driven to prostitution by a need for basic necessities such as food or shelter. This type of prostitution is common among the homeless and in refugee camps. The term is used in the sex trade and by aid workers , although some practitioners do not regard the act as exploitative. Regarding the prostitution of children the laws on prostitution as well as those on sex with a child apply.

If prostitution in general is legal there is usually a minimum age requirement for legal prostitution that is higher than the general age of consent see above for some examples. Although some countries do not single out patronage of child prostitution as a separate crime, the same act is punishable as sex with an underage person. In India, the federal police say that around 1. In Bangladesh, child prostitutes are known to take the drug Oradexon, also known as dexamethasone. This over-the-counter steroid , usually used by farmers to fatten cattle, makes child prostitutes look larger and older.

According to social activists, the steroid can cause diabetes , high blood pressure and is highly addictive. Some adults travel to other countries to have access to sex with children, which is unavailable in their home country. Cambodia has become a notorious destination for sex with children. As the crime usually goes undiscovered, these laws are rarely enforced. Prostitution among the elderly is a phenomenon reported in South Korea where elderly people turn to prostitution to pay their bills. This problem comes about because the state does not provide enough income for necessities.

Clients in Korea tend also to be elderly. Street prostitutes are at higher risk of violent crime than brothel prostitutes and bar prostitutes. In the United States, the homicide rate for female prostitutes was estimated to be per , Prostitution may sometimes be associated with illegal, abusive, and dangerous activities. One view maintains that this results from prostitution being stigmatized or illegal, or both.

Sex trafficking is defined as using coercion or force to transport an unwilling person into prostitution or other sexual exploitation. Government-sponsored research completed in , approximately , people are trafficked across national borders, which does not include millions trafficked within their own countries. Approximately 80 percent of transnational victims are women and girls and up to 50 percent are minors," estimated the US Department of State in a study, in reference to the number of people estimated to be victims of all forms of human trafficking.

A statistical analysis of various measures of trafficking found that the legal status of prostitution did not have a significant impact on trafficking. Children are sold into the global sex trade every year. Often they are kidnapped or orphaned, and sometimes they are sold by their own families. Prostitution, often when it is illegal, is used in extortion and blackmail , which always involves extortion, where the extortionist threatens to reveal information about a victim or their family members that is potentially embarrassing, socially damaging, or incriminating unless a demand for money, property, or services is met.

The subject of the extortion may be manipulated into or voluntarily solicit the use of prostitution which is then later used to extort money or for profit otherwise. The film The Godfather Part II famously depicts the role of Senator Geary who is implicated in the use of prostitution in order to gain his compliance on political issues. In street prostitution, the prostitute solicits customers while waiting at street corners, sometimes called "the track" by pimps and prostitutes alike.

They usually dress in skimpy, provocative clothing, regardless of the weather. Street prostitutes are often called "streetwalkers" while their customers are referred to as "tricks" or "johns. Motels and hotels that accommodate prostitutes commonly rent rooms by the half or full hour.

In Russia and other countries of the former USSR , prostitution takes the form of an open-air market. One prostitute stands by a roadside, and directs cars to a so-called "tochka" usually located in alleyways or carparks , where lines of women are paraded for customers in front of their car headlights. The client selects a prostitute, whom he takes away in his car.

Prevalent in the late s, this type of service has been steadily declining in recent years. A "lot lizard" is a commonly encountered special case of street prostitution. Prostitutes will often proposition truckers using a CB radio from a vehicle parked in the non-commercial section of a truck stop parking lot, communicating through codes based on commercial driving slang, then join the driver in his truck. Brothels are establishments specifically dedicated to prostitution, often confined to special red-light districts in big cities.

Other names for brothels include bordello , whorehouse , cathouse , knocking shop , and general houses. Prostitution also occurs in some massage parlours , and in Asian countries in some barber shops where sexual services may be offered as a secondary function of the premises. Escort services may be distinguished from prostitution or other forms of prostitution in that sexual activities are often not explicitly advertised as necessarily included in these services; rather, payment is often noted as being for an escort's time and companionship only, although there is often an implicit assumption that sexual activities are expected.

In escort prostitution, the act takes place at the customer's residence or hotel room referred to as out-call , or at the escort's residence or in a hotel room rented for the occasion by the escort called in-call. The prostitute may be independent or working under the auspices of an escort agency. Services may be advertised over the Internet, in regional publications, or in local telephone listings.

Use of the Internet by prostitutes and customers is common. Adult contact sites, chats and on-line communities are also used. This, in turn, has brought increased scrutiny from law enforcement, public officials, and activist groups toward online prostitution. In , Craigslist came under fire for its role in facilitating online prostitution, and was sued by some 40 US state attorneys general, local prosecutors, and law enforcement officials. Reviews of the services of individual prostitutes can often be found at various escort review boards worldwide.

These online forums are used to trade information between potential clients, and also by prostitutes to advertise the various services available. Sex workers, in turn, often use online forums of their own to exchange information on clients, particularly to warn others about dangerous clients. Sex tourism is travel for sexual intercourse with prostitutes or to engage in other sexual activity.

The World Tourism Organization , a specialized agency of the United Nations defines sex tourism as "trips organized from within the tourism sector, or from outside this sector but using its structures and networks, with the primary purpose of effecting a commercial sexual relationship by the tourist with residents at the destination".

As opposed to regular sex tourism, which is often legal, a tourist who has sex with a child prostitute will usually be committing a crime in the host country, under the laws of his own country notwithstanding him being outside of it and against international law.

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