Court-circuiter le transport électrique (French Edition)

Réseau maillé en tension continue

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Framatome holds all existing assets of Areva related to the design and manufacture of nuclear reactors and equipment, fuel design and supply, and services to existing reactors. Framatome excludes all assets, liabilities and staff related to the completion of the Olkiluoto 3 EPR in Finland, which remain with Areva NP, within the scope of Areva SA, along with some Le Creusot Forge potential liabilities especially those related to Flamanville 3.

Framatome will no longer be tied to a particular reactor design, and long-term operation of all types of reactor will be a major service objective. The six Framatome business units will be: The rights issue is mostly to finance its developments to In May EDF announced the creation of the Edvance engineering joint venture with Areva NP, to design and build nuclear islands and control systems for new reactors globally. This arises from the July agreement to establish a dedicated company for the design, project management and marketing of new reactors then called NICE.

The aim of this company would be to improve the preparation and management of projects, as well as the export offering of the French nuclear industry. The entity, originally named New Areva Holding Co.

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This announcement marked the end of the restructuring process. The strategic plan of the new organisation is centred on three objectives: Areva TA, the propulsion and research reactor unit, as well as the renewables businesses, was retained by Areva SA. In March its In medium and long-term debt amounted to FF billion, or 1.

However, by the end of EdF had reduced this to FF billion, about two-thirds of sales revenue FF billion and less than three times annual cash flow. Net interest charges had dropped to FF 7. EdF early in estimated that its reactors provided power at EUR 4. The weighted average of regulated tariffs is EUR 4.

In a report commissioned by the prime minister put costs at 4. From being a net electricity importer through most of the s, France has become the world's largest net electricity exporter, with electricity being the fourth largest export. Next door is Italy, without any operating nuclear power plants. It is Europe's largest importer of electricity, most coming ultimately from France.

The UK has also become a major customer for French electricity. They were similar to the British Magnox units but developed independently. EdF then chose pressurised water reactor PWR types, supported by new enrichment capacity and fully indigenous manufacturing. EdF plans for some BWR units did not proceed. This is a higher degree of standardisation than anywhere else in the world. There have been two fast reactors — Phenix which ran for over 30 years, and Super Phenix, which was commissioned but then closed for political reasons.

Differences in net power among almost identical reactors is usually due to differences in cold sources for cooling. This was confirmed in as the new standard design for France and it received French design approval in There have been two significant fast breeder reactors in France. It was shut down for modification , returned at MWe for six years, and ceased power generation in March , though it continued in test operation and to maintain research programs by CEA until October A second unit was Super-Phenix of MWe, which started up in but was closed down for political reasons at the end of and is now being decommissioned.

The operation of Phenix is fundamental to France's research on waste disposal, particularly transmutation of actinides. All but four of EdF's nuclear power plants 14 reactors are inland, and require fresh water for cooling. Eleven of the 15 inland plants 32 reactors have cooling towers, using evaporative cooling, the others use simply river or lake water directly. With regulatory constraints on the temperature increase in receiving waters, this means that in very hot summers generation output may be limited. Its report, released in conjunction with ASN, proposed a new set of 'hard core' safety requirements to ensure the protection of vital safety-critical structures and equipment to ensure that vital functions can be maintained in the face of events beyond the design basis of the plant, such as earthquakes, fires, or the prolonged loss of power or emergency cooling.

The MWe reactors all had their lifetimes extended by ten years in , after their second yearly review. Most started up late s to early s, and they are reviewed together in a process that takes four months at each unit. A review of the MWe class followed and in October the regulatory authority cleared all 20 units for an extra ten years' operation conditional upon minor modifications at their year outages over The third year inspections of the MWe series began in and run to The 3rd ten-year inspections of the MWe series run from to Each individual unit will now be subject to inspection during their year outage, starting with Tricastin 1.

In December ASN extended its licence by ten years, to , and in February it did the same for unit 2, to , conditional upon post-Fukushima safety upgrades being brought forward. In July ASN approved a ten-year licence extension for Fessenheim 1, the oldest operating reactor start-up , subject to making its 1.

EdF considered the cost-benefit situation following the outcome of EU stress tests and completed the work in mid Much the same work on unit 2 will follow, and EdF committed to this in mid Bugey 2 was approved by ASN for ten-year life extension in July , and Bugey 4 the same in July , subject to similar conditions for minor upgrading. With Tricastin 1, this brings to five the total approved for year operating life.

Court-circuiter le transport électrique

In July EdF said that it was assessing the prospect of year lifetimes for all its existing reactors. EdF has replaced the steam generators at 22 of its MWe units and is currently replacing those at two units per year, and plans to increase this to three units in In the government announced that both Fessenheim reactors should close by , for political reasons and regardless of safety evaluations. This would require compensation payments to minority owners: Germany's EnBW has The report concluded, "Whatever the long-term energy policy followed, it would make sense, fiscally and economically, to retain the benefit of the 'surplus nuclear' by not prematurely closing second generation plants currently in operation.

In August the government agreed to pay EdF compensation for the closure, in two instalments, the precise amounts depending on wholesale electricity prices through to In January EdF agreed to the compensation protocol which would be signed when EdF formally requests shutdown. This would include retraining of staff, decommissioning the plant, the basic nuclear facility tax and post-operational costs.

Further variable payments would be made to reflect EDF's operating income shortfall up to due to the closure. In April the EdF board decided to give notice of Fessenheim shutdown within six moths prior to full commissioning of Flamanville 3. However, that notice would only be given if "the closure of the Fessenheim power plant is necessary in order to comply with the legal ceiling of The Council of State later ruled the decree had not been issued at EDF's request, as required by law. It pointed out that there are only two parts of a nuclear reactor that cannot be replaced, the reactor pressure vessel and the reactor containment building.

The rest of the components have a normal lifespan of years and require renovation or replacement. ASN said it would evaluate life extensions on the basis of Generation III criteria regardless of when particular reactors were built. In March the ASN said that there were no generic elements to prevent the twenty MWe units operating safely to 40 years.

It considers the actions planned or already taken by EDF to assess the condition of the reactors and control ageing issues up to their fourth inspection are adequate. However, it said these assessments do not take into account any evaluations of the fitness of the units' reactor pressure vessels for operation beyond 30 years, nor the results of tests carried out during the reactors' third ten-yearly inspections, from April to In mid the board of EdF decided in principle to build the first demonstration unit of an expected series of Areva EPRs.

The decision was seen as "an essential step in renewing EDF's nuclear generation mix". EDF then submitted a construction licence application. However, early in EdF backed away from this and said it would build the plant on its own and take all of the output. Nevertheless, in November an agreement was signed confirming the The agreement also gave EdF an option to participate in construction and operation of future ENEL nuclear power plants in Italy or elsewhere in Europe and the Mediterranean.

ENEL said it would pursue its commercial business in France by other means. Site works at Flamanville on the Normandy coast were complete and the first concrete was poured in December , with construction to take 54 months and commercial operation expected in May In January EdF ordered the nuclear steam supply system from Areva. The turbine-generator section was ordered in from Alstom — a MWe Arabelle unit. In April tests showed that parts of the RPV steel from Creusot Forge had a high carbon content and one-third lower than specified toughness, and the head of ASN said that it would make an assessment of the slight carbon heterogeneity.

ASN confirmed this order in October As well as the RPV, forging of steam generator shells was at Areva's Creusot Forge factory from , with installation in In July EdF again revised the completion time to due to re-evaluation of civil engineering works and to take into account interruptions during the first half of the year. As the reactor pressure vessel was installed in January Areva confirmed that first power was expected in , four years behind the original schedule.

It would require 40 of these to reach present capacity. EdF's development strategy had selected the nuclear replacement option on the basis of nuclear's "economic performance, for the stability of its costs and out of respect for environmental constraints. This design is expected to be completed by , for construction by Like Flamanville, it has two MWe units now operating, and room for two more.

A public debate on the project concluded in , but nuclear safety authority ASN did not accept EdF's application to build the unit, sending it back for further work before the application is submitted to a local public inquiry.

However, EdF then halted plans for the Penly 3 unit and said that it did not intend to build more nuclear capacity in France for operation before A third new reactor, with majority GdF Suez ownership and operated by it, was proposed to follow — in line with the company's announced intentions. This sparked union opposition due to the private ownership. It would have been a reference plant for the Areva-Mitsubishi design, providing a base for export sales. France has been pursuing three Gen IV technologies: While Areva has been working on the last two types, the main interest in the very high temperature reactors has been in the USA, as well as South Africa and China.

CEA interest in the fast reactors is on the basis that they will produce less waste and will better exploit uranium resources, including the , tonnes of depleted uranium and some reprocessed uranium stockpiled in France. If the CEA embarks on the sodium-cooled design, there is plenty of experience to draw on — Phenix and Superphenix — and they could go straight to a demonstration plant — the main innovations would be dispensing with the breeding blanket around the core and substituting gas for water as the intermediate coolant.

A gas-cooled fast reactor would be entirely new and would require a small prototype as first step — the form of its fuel would need to be unique. In December the government's Atomic Energy Committee decided to proceed with a Generation IV sodium-cooled fast reactor prototype whose design features are to be decided by and the start up aimed for A new generation of sodium-cooled fast reactor with innovations intended to improve the competitiveness and the safety of this reactor type is the reference approach for this prototype.

A gas-cooled fast reactor design is to be developed in parallel as an alternative option. The prototype will also have the mission of demonstrating advanced recycling modes intended to improve the ultimate high-level and long-lived waste to be disposed of. The objective is to have one type of competitive fast reactor technology ready for industrial deployment in France and for export after The project will be led by the CEA. Normally base-load generating plants, with high capital cost and low operating cost, are run continuously, since this is the most economic mode.

But also it is technically the simplest way, since nuclear and coal-fired plants cannot readily alter power output, compared with gas or hydro plants.

Ampère jette les bases de l'électrodynamique (septembre 1820-janvier 1821)

The high reliance on nuclear power in France thus poses some technical challenges, since the reactors collectively need to be used in load-following mode. Since electricity cannot be stored, generation output must exactly equal to consumption at all times. Any change in demand or generation of electricity at a given point on the transmission network has an instant impact on the entire system. RTE , a subsidiary of EdF, is responsible for operating, maintaining and developing the French electricity transmission network.

France has the biggest grid network in Europe, made up of some , km of high and extra high voltage lines, and 44 cross-border lines, including a DC link to UK. Electricity is transmitted regionally at and kilovolts.

Frequency and voltage are controlled from the national control centre, but dispatching of capacity is done regionally. Due to its central geographical position, RTE is a crucial entity in the European electricity market and a critical operator in maintaining its reliability.

All France's nuclear capacity is from PWR units. There are two ways of varying the power output from a PWR: Using normal control rods to reduce power means that there is a portion of the core where neutrons are being absorbed rather than creating fission, and if this is maintained it creates an imbalance in the fuel, with the lower part of the fuel assemblies being more reactive that the upper parts.

Adding boron to the water diminishes the reactivity uniformly, but to reverse the effect the water has to be treated to remove the boron, which is slow and costly, and it creates a radioactive waste. So to minimise these impacts since the s EdF has used in each PWR reactor some less absorptive 'grey' control rods which weigh less from a neutronic point of view than ordinary control rods and they allow sustained variation in power output. This means that RTE can depend on flexible load following from the nuclear fleet to contribute to regulation in these three respects:.

PWR plants are very flexible at the beginning of their cycle, with fresh fuel and high reserve reactivity. So at the very end of the cycle, they are run at steady power output and do not regulate or load-follow until the next refueling outage. RTE has continuous oversight of all French plants and determines which plants adjust output in relation to the three considerations above, and by how much.

RTE's real-time picture of the whole French system operating in response to load and against predicted demand shows the total of all inputs.

This includes the hydro contribution at peak times, but it is apparent that in a coordinated system the nuclear fleet is capable of a degree of load following, even though the capability of individual units to follow load may be limited. Plants being built today, eg according to European Utilities' Requirements EUR , have load-following capacity fully built in.

France uses some 12, tonnes of uranium oxide concentrate 10, tonnes of U per year for its electricity generation. Areva perceives the front end of the French fuel cycle as strategic, and invests accordingly. Beyond this, it is self-sufficient and has conversion, enrichment, uranium fuel fabrication and MOX fuel fabrication plants operational together with reprocessing and a waste management program. Most fuel cycle activities are carried out by Areva. In May Areva NC announced plans for a new conversion project — Comurhex II — expanding and modernising the facilities at Malvesi and Pierrelatte near Tricastin to strengthen its global position in the front end of the fuel cycle.

In January EdF awarded a long-term conversion contract to Areva. At the start of Comurhex I had an inventory of three years' worth of sales, from which customers would be supplied between the closure of Comhurhex I and the opening of Comurhex II. In September , Orano stated that Comurhex II would commence industrial production in , and ramp up to full capacity over several years. From it is expected that the facility will have a capacity of tonnes per year and will have an annual output tonnes.

Construction is due to be completed in , at which point the facility will reach its full capacity of 15, tonnes per year. Orano stated in September that EDF is committed to buy about one-third of the total output, with the balance mainly sold under long-term contracts to about 70 utilities in the USA, China, South Korea and several European countries. Areva has undertaken deconversion of enrichment tails at Pierrelatte since the s. It ran at about half capacity using about MWe until mid and then closed down, as replacement capacity at Georges Besse II reached 1. The plant delivered more than million SWU, or 35, t of enriched product in 33 years.

The final agreement after approval by the four governments involved was signed in mid The new Georges Besse II enrichment plant at Tricastin was officially opened in December and commenced commercial operation in April The south plant started construction in , commenced operation in , and reached full capacity of 4. Construction of the north plant began in with first production in March , and was fully operational at the end of with 3. Most production from GBII was contracted as of It runs over 17 years to , corresponding with the amortisation of the new plant.

About tonnes of depleted uranium tails is produced annually, most of which is stored for use in Generation IV fast reactors. Only tonnes per year is used in MOX. By this resources is expected to total some , tonnes of DU. Enrichment of depleted uranium tails has been undertaken in Russia, at Novouralsk and Zelenogorsk. Some 33, tonnes of French DU from Areva and EdF has been sent to Russia in shipments over , and about t of enriched 'natural' uranium about 0.

The contracts for this work end in , and the last shipment was in July with the returned material to be shipped by year end. Tails from re-enrichment remain in Russia as the property of the enrichers. Fuel fabrication is at several Areva plants in France and Belgium. Significant upgrading of these plants forms part of Areva's strategy for strengthening its front end facilities. MOX fuel fabrication and use of reprocessed uranium is described below.

The JV will develop, fabricate and commercialize fuel assemblies based on metallic fuel technology. Commercial sales of the fuel are expected by France chose the closed fuel cycle at the very beginning of its nuclear program, involving reprocessing used fuel so as to recover uranium and plutonium for re-use and to reduce the volume of high-level wastes for disposal. Overall the closed fuel cycle cost is assessed as comparable with that for direct disposal of used fuel, and preserves a resource which may become more valuable in the future.

Back end services are carried out by Areva. Used fuel storage in pools at reactor sites is relatively brief. Total in storage was 14, tonnes. Used fuel from the French reactors and from other countries is sent to Areva's La Hague plant in Normandy for reprocessing. This has the capacity to reprocess up to tonnes per year of used fuel in the UP2 and UP3 facilities, and had reprocessed 28, tonnes to the end of The treatment extracts Typical input today is 3. The rest is preserved for later reprocessing to provide the plutonium required for the start-up of Generation IV reactors.

Reprocessing is undertaken a few years after discharge, following some cooling. At the end of , there were 80 tonnes of civilian plutonium in storage in France, 60 t of it at La Hague. Of the total, 56 t belonged to French entities, and 27 t to EdF. These discharges earlier amounted to about tonnes per year, but rose to tonnes from Used MOX fuel is not reprocessed at present.

EdF used it in the Cruas MWe power reactors from the mids to Article 14 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 15 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 16 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 17 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 18 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 19 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 20 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 21 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 22 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 23 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 24 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 25 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 26 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 27 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 28 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 30 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 31 En savoir plus sur cet article Article 32 En savoir plus sur cet article Dispositions finales et transitoires.

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