Lei do Bem - Lei nº 11.196/2005 (Portuguese Edition)

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Provision of accounting [ Brazil, he is also a co-author of the book [ Oil and natural gas reserves which, based on the analysis of the geological and engineering data, are estimated to be recovered commercially from discovered and assessed reservoirs, with a high degree of certainty, and the estimate of which takes the prevailing economic conditions, [ The firm also has publications and [ Com uma equipe competente no entendimento e na [ With a team skilled in understanding and applying [ Em 31 de Dezembro de , o montante reclamado pela [ As at 31 December , the [ Income tax and social contribution are calculated [ This would include some principles of environment, business [ The CSL tax base is the net profit adjusted by the additions, exclusions and offsettings [ Possibility of registering [ Besides other important changes [ Mauricio Hermini de Camargo.

Anorexia, bulimia e obesidade. Ricardo De Medeiros Development of a criterion for Entrevistas realizadas pelo autor: Pierre Doray, for housing this project in the center and for sharing the expertise of its scholars, which Figure 93 Outbound activities. Design and Manufacturing Research director: Desenvolvimento de produtos 2. I dedicate this work, as well as my whole life and career to my parents, Laerte and Neusa, who gave me life, education and principles I shall take to my grave.

Acknowledgements are due to many people and institutions that somehow contributed to this research. Paulo Carlos Kaminski, my research director, for all support, orientation, good advice and friendship since my undergraduate years, for 15 years now, and also for trusting me such a challenging doctoral research project. To all respondents of the survey in Brazil and in Canada, that account for more than 60 people, for having shared part of their precious time to contribute to this research.

Although they must remain anonymous, for confidentiality reasons, their contribution is invaluable and so is my gratitude. Pierre Doray, for housing this project in the center and for sharing the expertise of its scholars, which contributed to improve this work.

The intelligence, then, the knowledge, the wisdom, as well of individuals as of all, as well of one man as of the whole Church, ought, in the course of ages and centuries, to increase and make much and vigorous progress; but yet only in its own kind; that is to say, in the same doctrine, in the same sense, and in the same meaning. In this new mindset, firms can and should use external ideas as well as internal ideas, and internal and external paths to market, as firms look to advance in their technologies.

The general goal of this research project is to analyze the depth and the impact of open innovation practices, as well as to identify patterns of their integration to the product development process PDP with focus on aerospace, a traditional high-tech segment within the metal-mechanic sector. The sample of analysis comprises a total of 53 aerospace plants, 22 of them in Brazil and 31 in Canada. Through a descriptive analysis of survey data, it is possible to identify similarities and differences in the patterns of open innovation in the two clusters.

Among the differences, Canada stands out with respect to its innovation public policies and assistance programs, which are found to be more effective in relation to Brazilian policies. Besides, Canadian plants seem to have a better innovative performance, at the cutting edge of aerospace technologies and higher international relevance. The survey also finds that the intensities of openness in Brazil and Canada are quite similar, although the patterns and motivations differ: Besides, Brazilian plants are much less intense in the adoption of formal IP protection methods in relation to Canadian ones, which hinders but not prevents the full adoption of open innovation in the Brazilian cluster.

Based on the results, this text concludes with recommendations directed to the three vertices of the triple helix in both countries, namely: Product development, technological innovation, open innovation, innovation management, aerospace industry. Although currently relevant, the subject is not that new. As a matter of fact, since the Industrial Revolution in the nineteenth century, the dynamics of capitalism has been deeply influenced by technological development, which led to a paradigm shift in the economic development theory of his time.

That is to say that the agent that motivates and generates technical progress is mostly the firm and not public science anymore. According to this theory, the factor that allows firms to earn extraordinary profits is the introduction of technical differentiations innovations that would enable the destruction of an existing market structure in order to create a new situation in which, at a first moment, the firm that performed such innovation 32 would have a monopoly.

The creation of temporary monopolies would then be at the very heart of competition1. These technical differentiations tend to be, sooner or later, nullified by the action of competition, which is to say that the effects of an innovation are temporary. Figure 1 summarizes this cycle. That is to say that economy tends to be cumulated in the long run in a few large companies, rather than in perfect competition. According to Steindl , companies within an oligopoly are dimensioned with excess capacity, which allows them to absorb demand oscillations and to adopt aggressive price strategies for blocking new entrants.

What Steindl ignores in his model is the relevance of technical changes for obtaining competitive advantages by firms, as he admitted in late writings BLOCH, In spite of that, he managed to reasonably explain the dynamics of price determination in these markets and the cumulative nature of the economy at the firm level. Penrose reaches a similar conclusion addressing the firm through a resource-based approach.

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In other words, accumulation to Penrose is not only in scale but also in scope. The resources of a firm assume a central role in penrosian theory: By resources, one shall understand both tangibles infrastructure, equipments etc and intangibles knowledge, know-how, values etc. The intangible ones are the most important in penrosian model, for they contain all capabilities that the firm developed throughout its path history. The necessity to grow and diversify arises from the fact that the firm permanently has productive resources that are not used. These, instead of being considered a waste, are faced by Penrose as opportunities for growth, for they make room for diversification.

For Penrose, a firm fundamentally grows because it has idle resources. In this book, Chandler observed that: These processes differed from earlier ones in their potential for exploiting the unprecedented cost advantages of the economies of scale and scope.

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To take advantage of the benefits of the economies of scale and scope, firms developed organizational capabilities in management and strategic planning, which aim to administrate a multidivisional structure in constant vertical and horizontal growth in the market, not to mention product diversification and expansion to new geographic markets.

This analysis also leads to the same conclusion as that of authors previously presented: According to him and other authors, such as Langlois , manufacturing was at that time at a speed process of outsourcing: Quoting West et al. In this new paradigm, companies realize that outsourcing and strategic alliances for providing fully-integrated solutions turnkey contracts are alternatives for keeping them competitive in the market.

This paradigm shift causes a reduction of barriers to entry for new firms due to the transfer of capabilities to these specialized suppliers , and give greater fluidity to the market, once market-share gains are not necessarily associated with an increase in the size of firms STURGEON, Shifts in the technological and economical environments led to a new market dynamics where one observes: These factors result in increasing rates of uncertainty on investment.

It is the logic behind the rise of specialized merchant suppliers. At that time, however, manufacturing was the most relevant locus of outsourcing. Even today, manufacturing outsourcing is more often performed than other types of outsourcing. But there is no reason why this unbundling model could not be replicated to the innovation value chain6. In fact, it is already happening. However, as costs for internal implementation of a given activity go higher for no matter what reason, outsourcing may become a reasonable alternative.

It is within this context that the concept of open innovation arises. Chesbrough a , who coined the term open innovation, follows the same line of argument in his first and introductory book on the subject, as he discusses the panorama before its rise: The subject is not a novelty in the innovation literature. Additionally, the concept draws attention not only to the importance of knowledge sourcing but also to the exploitation of internal innovation together with external partners the so-called inside-out process. Chesbrough - Use of inflows and outflows of knowledge to accelerate internal innovation, and expand the markets for external use of innovation, respectively From 's on In spite of the effort to precise dates, it is not quite clear when a paradigm shift occurs, due to overlaps that are noticed in practice.

Paradigm shifts happen 41 gradually, not suddenly, and very normally they coexist within time and space. A paradigm shift is related to cultural aspects, therefore connected to personal values and beliefs. Two employees from the same department of a given company can follow different paradigms, for instance. However, it is normally of less relevance to industrial organization matters: Alone, it normally does not draw any conclusions about present or future.

Much more complex is the effort to derive a theory based on a paradigm shift that is in course. In this context, open innovation OI arises as a new research line among scholars and innovation experts around the world. EIRMA Figure 2 Towards greater outsource of innovation This figure shows that after a period of vertical integration and accumulation, economy seems to walk towards a more plain level with lesser barriers to new entrants biased by a new scenario of collaboration and knowledge transfer.

The task of scholars engaged on researching the concept is to give conceptual basis to the facts observed in practice. As Chesbrough et al. The clearest evidence, however, is the fact that many companies from different industrial segments are explicitly engaged in open innovation as part of their strategy: On the behalf of the academy, Chesbrough et al. Although these topics are not new to literature, the novelty lies in the integrated perspective that OI provides to such studies OECD, Dahlander and Gann also evidenced the growing interest of scholars in the topic after an extensive literature review.

Among their findings, they noticed a rising number of papers published on open innovation in the period from to indexed in ISI Web of Knowledge database, reproduced from the original in Figure 3. This common interest in the topic from both scholars and executives derives from the observation that industrial organization towards innovation is in course of change.

The open model solution includes efforts for finding new sources of revenues and reducing development costs by leveraging external sources of development. According to Chiaroni et al. There lies the current relevance of a research project on OI: By doing so, this paper intends to clarify whether OI should be regarded as strategic or not for this specific industrial segment. Six constraints are highlighted in the previous paragraph, which constitute the boundaries of this work. The pecuniary aspect, although important, is regarded as secondary in this work: Besides, a recent exploratory paper from Knudsen and Mortensen highlights some negative effects of openness within the new product development process.

Far from discouraging further research on the subject, these results urge other scholars to verify whether these findings are also observed in different contexts. From that it follows that this work does not intend to make cross-industry analyses and comparisons, but simply investigate the impacts of OI within one industry, 47 following the deductive logic of analysis from general to specific. This work aims to verify whether the theory that is being formed on open innovation can be applied to one specific chosen situation. It serves to counteract the majority of publications on open innovation, which generally focuses on highly innovative and dynamic sectors, such as biotechnology, software development, information technology and mobile electronics.

Huizingh argues that this path is common to any new concept: In this case, the adoption of open innovation shall not be a necessity in absolute terms, but it may or may not turn out to be a competitive advantage to firms in these segments. Choosing a more traditional industrial segment is a way to investigate whether open innovation is a more general tendency, rather than just a tendency for some specific industrial segments.

The term is used by Chesbrough a to designate the factors that are leading firms towards the adoption of open business models. They are presented in details in section 2. The reason for this constraint is to allow both higher relevance to this work and larger population of enterprises within the scope of the research, so that better results be achieved. The first boundary restrains the field of study in which this research can be framed innovative product development. The second boundary brings implications to the research method discussed in Chapter 5.

The remaining four boundaries contribute for choosing the industry segment of study, which is discussed in the following subsection. Aerospace One industry segment that meets all the requirements previously raised is the aerospace. As presented in details in section 4. One additional aspect that biased the choice of this segment is the fact that the most renowned Brazilian company in the segment, Embraer, has adopted a business model that is broadly related to openness: Bombardier, in contrast, was thought to place less emphasis on external partnerships because it was larger and more vertically and horizontally integrated, and Fairchild Dornier because financial and ownership issues had probably limited its ability to establish and maintain long-term relationships.

Through this practice, Embraer managed to reach reduced production lead-time and costs, as well as lowered development risks and costs, in relation to the competition, by sharing responsibilities HBS, a.

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Brazil and Canada As part of the research methodology explained in details in Chapter 5, this work aims to provide a comparative study of the Brazilian aerospace industry regarding openness practices in innovation processes. This comparative study must include one other aerospace industry from somewhere this segment is also relevant to local economy. In addition, as it is addressed in section 1. In addition, also in , aerospace is the second largest industry segment in the 18 This model is described in details in section 2.

Further information about the aerospace industry in Canada and Quebec is found in section 4. This is one of the main reasons why much skepticism is found in the academy towards OI. Therefore, the first question to be asked in this research project is: This definition is inclusive for various different practices to be considered open. An unintended consequence of such a definition is that scholars use the openness construct to mean different things.

This has led to conceptual ambiguity, with empirical papers focusing on different aspects, inhibiting our ability to build a coherent body of knowledge. At the very least, this may be detrimental to what could be useful studies by scholars outside the innovation community, who find it difficult to consider how openness links into broader debates. Thus, it can be defined as follows: What differences and similarities shall be observed in the approach of open innovation for both realities? What it is intended to verify is whether OI is a reality in more traditional high-tech industries, such as Aerospace.

Therefore, the fourth and last question is formulated as follows: Therefore, an extensive literature review on product development and open innovation shall be performed in order to reach the state-of-the-art within these two research fields, as well as to see where the studies in the two fields of study converge. As for the specific research goals, they can be listed as follows: This goal is performed by means of a literature review followed by a critical analysis of the concepts; b To analyze OI tools applicable to the Product Development Process PDP.

It follows from the discussion performed as the previous goal and is also performed by means of a literature review and critical analysis; c To derive a conceptual model of the PDP suitable to incorporate and delineate the contribution of OI to the process. This goal also follows from the previous two, and is essentially the result of a critical review of existing models in the literature and the proposal of modifications to adapt them to a new boundary condition OI ; It is important to stress that the primary goal in this work is to analyze the impact in the field of technology development.

The economical impact analysis, although not neglected, is relegated as secondary in this research. This study consists of a comparison between Brazilian emergent economy reality and a well-developed country where this industry is also important and relevant to local economy Canada ; e To derive conclusions from this comparative study, with suggestions and recommendations to firms in both geographical situations.

In order to achieve these goals, besides the literature review, a market analysis overview on the Aerospace industry is required. Chapter 1 introduces the theme and its relevance, by means of a timeline analysis of innovation as a field of study within Economics from Schumpeter to date. It also presents the boundaries, goals and the formulation of the problem of research.

Chapter 2 presents the theoretical foundations of the research, which consists of a literature review on product development and open innovation. Chapter 3 closes the literature overview, with the proposal of a conceptual model that serves as a framework that guides the rest of the work. Chapter 4 consists of a market analysis overview of the aerospace industry, in three domains: Chapter 5 presents in details the research method used to address the issues of this project.

Chapter 6 shows the results obtained through the research method and performs an analysis of them. Chapter 8 lists all references used in this work. These two topics are addressed in the sections 2. Product development and innovation management are complementary subjects, however, they are often studied separately.

The literature lacks works in which these two subjects are studied together. The reference material used for such consists of books and papers from the most renowned scholars engaged in the respective themes, as well as highlyreferenced literature review papers, mostly from high-impact journals, which summarize and present a consistent overview of the general academic production on the themes. The works referenced in this literature overview are not presented one by one, but their concepts, findings and conclusions diffused along the text, in order to present the reader a logical sequence to build the concepts that are relevant to this research project.

Product development went through the same path.

However, still according to Rozenfeld et al. Possible outputs within this definition encompass goods or services ABNT, Product development is the set of activities to create, modify and improve products. Product development sits in the broader literature on innovation TROTT, , which consists of two broad areas of inquiry: Therefore, to avoid misinterpretation of the term, and to stress the approach of the activity as a business process, this work adopts PDP nomenclature rather than NPD.

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This includes the generation of opportunities, their selection and transformation into artifacts manufacturable goods and activities services offered to customers, and the institutionalization of improvements in the NPD activities themselves. Also note that this definition perfectly suits to define PDP as well. Many efforts to organize PDP research into frameworks is found in the literature, with some points in common and some differences as well, though.

It is not surprising, since there are different perspectives in which one can regard the PDP. In this section, some literature review papers are analyzed and compared, namely: The aim behind this analysis is to search for evidences to argue that PDP research is also walking towards openness issues. Researchers were compelled to select projects, which would deliver tangible results within a specified period.

Therefore, this new generation, the fourth generation, which was arising by the time Liyanage et al. As such, it deals with internal and external sources of knowledge and manages research networks, collaborative arrangements and strategic alliances, linking research, technology and innovation management. Other renowned scholars built a similar historical background for PDP research. After this first failed attempt, the rise of the financial or economic models for evaluation of projects took place.

This rise placed PDP definitely in the second generation model of Liyanage et al. Afterwards, the rise of scoring and checklist models, probabilistic financial models and behavioral approaches progressively incorporate corporate business strategy as a factor of decision for portfolio management, placing PDP in the third generation model. Brown and Eisenhardt , in their turn, divide PDP research into three streams: Brown and Eisenhardt do not intend to establish a timeline in which these streams are prominent within PDP research.

Based on all three streams, the authors build an integrated model for product development which emphasize the organizational drivers and key players for successful product development: Finally, to conclude their paper, Brown and Eisenhardt propose an agenda for future research in the topic. For the matters of this text, it is worth mentioning the following assertions of them in this part. Internal communication is not negligible but often requires lesser organizational efforts to ensure that it happens properly.

Here the authors also identify some research inquiry opportunities. Krishnan and Ulrich classify PDP research papers in two broad categories: This division approaches the second and third generation models of Liyanage et al. It allowed the authors to identify three fundamental enablers in product development, as follows. These authors contribute to the literature in the field by integrating an evolutionary view to the PDP, which is done within three levels, as follows.

As it can be inferred from all these review studies, there is a general consensus among scholars that since product development is being studied as a business process by executives and the academy, two main streams can de identified: Besides, there is also a consensus in identifying a more recent trend to openness, collaboration and external awareness.

From that we argue that open innovation is in the state-of-the-art of PDP research. To support this argument, the next subsections analyze in detail some important aspects within PDP theory, namely: Afterwards there is a special section 2. Finally, in section 2. Therefore, product development processes are usually more complex to design, manage, measure and continuously improve, when compared to more routine business processes, such as manufacturing, for instance.

The authors argue that the while the ability to influence the outcome of the PDP decreases over time, normally the peaks of attention happen in the later phases of the process, when few or no changing is allowed in product itself without compromising huge amounts of time and money. This argument is summarized in the exhibit of Figure 5.

In addition, more and more departments are New scope Traditional scope being involved in PDP activities and decision making. Figure 6 Growing scope of the PDP -Manufacturing 66 Krishnan and Ulrich state that product development is a subject that encompasses studies in four different fields of knowledge, namely: Although distinctive one from the other, Krishnan and Ulrich In other words, the PDP is better understood if one regards it under the optics of decision making and the interdependencies among the four perspectives previously mentioned i. That is to say that PDP is intrinsically a multi-disciplinary subject, and it had better be regarded as such.

In other words, what gives consistence in product development literature are not the particularities on the methods adopted, for they vary over time and space, but the problems they are addressed to solve. Through an extensive literature review, they identify 34 decisions which are organized in eight groups, which in they turn are grouped into two broad categories: Figure 7 Product development decision groups The first group of activities consists of more technical issues that aim the creation of new products and their introduction in the market.

This group basically consists of product design activities, and subjacent issues related to it. The second group is more focused on the strategic decisions in the PDP. As a matter of fact, in their literature review, they do not consider the process of research and technology development as part of the PDP. Technology is considered an input to the process, instead.

Indeed, some scholars distinguish product development and technology development as two distinct processes JUGEND, Although recognizing that this division brings out some advantages for the understanding of the process as a whole, this work adopts the broader concept of the PDP, by considering both technology and product development as parts of the PDP. The justification for such decision is that although the TDP may be distinguishable to 25 Presented on page Usually, the reason why firms develop technology skills is to allow later incorporation in products and industrial processes.

In this case, one can consider, as an early output from the product development funnel. According to the manual: It is, however, directed primarily towards a specific practical aim or objective. One special attention, though, must be paid to the use of the term "experimental", always added by Frascati Manual OECD, when referring to development. In the introductory text of the sixth edition of the manual one finds: It may act not only as the original source of inventive ideas but also as a means of problem solving which can be called upon at any point up to implementation.

It would be necessary to establish a series of conventions or criteria by type of industry. Frascati manual adopts the rule originally laid down by the US National Science Foundation NSF for the exercise of judgment in difficult cases, which states that: Development and implementation activities for the adoption of new goods, services and processes may represent an important share of innovation activity.

The highlights are ours One alternative to distinguish routine product development to innovative product development is to call upon the use of a neologism, such as Brazilian legislators did in federal law n. As a result, this work contributes in defining the scope of the PDP with a sketch that is presented in Figure 9. It departs from market needs delivered by project strategy and planning and comprises all steps from then until manufacturing is deployed and is operational. The second group comprises portfolio management activities.

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The other two activities consist of managerial activities related to the organization and management of development project portfolio of the firm. It is very common to see the PDP responsibility divided into at least two different departments: The names may vary from one company to another, but this division is usually present, especially in big companies, because it is logical and practical for the purposes of the PDP. Regarding now portfolio management activities, Cooper et al. This macrophase is closely related to what Cooper et al.

Here is where the product design takes place. Although sequential, Kaminski proposes that these stages must be iteratively dealt with, according to the concept of the design spiral EVANS, , explained in section 2. Also in this phase, the management of all product planning done in the development macro-phase must be performed, e. Different methods and frameworks emerged from this simple straight-forward tripartite division. Through them, companies and experts are able to translate product development phases into business process maps BPM , often represented by procedure flowcharts.

Once translated into flowcharts, precise indicators and control variables can be established to allow effective management through traditional project management tools HAMMER, A linear or sequential model is divided into activities disposed in a logical order from conception to accomplishment. Development projects must go through all applicable stages before reaching the market. Clark et Wheelwright, Figure 11 The product development funnel The use of the geometric shape of a funnel to represent product development is meaningful.

The outlet of the funnel is narrow, to show that less products are launched in relation to projects that are evaluated. If a project is interrupted within this phase, it is often an indicator of a planning problem in the previous stages that were not able to identify this false positive before the departure of its development. In this sense, Cooper developed the stage-gate model, whose basic idea behind is to see the PDP as a linear bipartite graph, which consists of two kinds of activities: In order to pass from one stage to the next, the project must necessarily go through a gate, where the decision of continuing funding the project or not is typically decided by a manager or a steering committee.

The stage-gate model shown in Figure 12 is reproduced from the original. Figure 12 The stage-gate process model The stage-gate model contributed to highlight the importance and to show how to implement a systematic discipline of project evaluation, integrated with decision making in strategic planning ROZENFELD et al. As it happens to all models, which are nothing but approximate representations of reality, linear models incur limitations. The two major limitations are: However, they do not take false negatives into consideration, i. In reality, what happens is a combination of both methods.

Later on, they should be refined and re-entered into the solution as the design is carried on, until all performance characteristics and features fall into desired standards. Very often, PDP models combine linear and iterative steps. For instance, Mankin proposes an iterative process consisting on controlled releases of the product in order to involve customer feedback not only for product improvement, but also for product definition and specification.

However, the author proposes the use of a linear stage-gate decision framework within each loop of the spiral. According to the author, the use of iterative loops would be a way to test alternatives, and to let customers decide the features or the very use of the product. Figure 15 illustrates this proposal, also represented by a spiral.

Nowadays, there are many hundreds of different PDP management tools. The tools may differ from the coverage of the PDP: For exemplification purposes, some of the most widespread tools adopted by technology firms in the market are presented and analyzed next. The final document delivered by the TRM process is the technology roadmap, which: Additionally, periodical reviews are recommended in order to generate eventual updates in the roadmap, due to changes in the technology scenario.

As for the stage-gate method, this tool is more useful for business development strategy personal, for it determines the strategy of technological development of the company in order to reach specific strategic goals. However, it requires the involvement of technological departments due to its technologicaloriented approach. It focuses on defining customer needs and required functionality early in the development cycle, documenting requirements, then proceeding with design synthesis and system validation while considering the complete problem.

The model covers all three macro-phases of the PDP, but with higher emphasis in the second phase development. It is then oriented to technological personal of the company. TRL classification system serves as a support for project portfolio management, to better distribute resources according to the level of maturity of each technology. TRL scale goes from 1 to 9. A lower TRL means that the technology is less mature, i.

Higher TRL means that the technology is closer to real application in products, services or processes. One way to see TRL is that the higher the level, the closer the technology is from the outlet of the development funnel presented in Figure In short, the importance behind the adoption of TRL systems is to support strategic decisions within portfolio management such as project prioritization and funding.

Embraer uses this classification in order to differentiate internal projects within the civil aircraft development process, according to Resende In short, this classification has a close relation to the TRL levels presented in the previous section; however the focus is on the commercialization of technologies, not the maturity level from the technological point of view. In the worldwide aerospace industry, there are some such consortia, namely: Besides, in this kind of research project universities and other science and technology institutes STI have better conditions to collaborate with industry players.

Linking to the discussion of the previous subsection 2. The consortium was launched in , and since its beginning counted with the support and participation of the main players of the local aerospace industry, in all 39 http: The rising number of members and projects are undoubtedly indicators of the acceptance of the model from both companies and STIs.

All local companies in the aerospace value chain are welcome to join the forum, regardless of whether they already are CRIAQ members or not. All participants are encouraged to share their technology needs, which are discussed and analyzed. From the discussion, project opportunities are raised and formulated for later discussion in specific committees formed by parties interested in the project.

For the opportunities in which there is viability, relevance and interest, research projects are formulated. All research projects formulated within the forum are included in its executive summary. The collaboration structure for financing projects follows the scheme illustrated in Figure According to this scheme, one observes that CRIAQ acts as the intermediary among all agents in the funding process.

Besides those resources, the universities generally count on other grants, including those from federal sources, which are applicable to consortium research projects. This is, in brief, the modus operandi of the Consortium for research and innovation in aerospace in Quebec, which is the research consortium studied within the scope of this research project.

This comparison can be summarized in Table 3. In the field of product development management, the company is internationally known for its so-called risk-sharing partnership RSP model that the company developed for the design of aircrafts. Basically, the model involves a strong involvement of equipment suppliers in the development that goes beyond the standard procedure of specification, order and development-on-demand.

Suppliers are called to be partners of the development, which includes sharing risks, responsibilities and results HBS, a. As asserted in a previous quote HBS, a: For this aircraft, Embraer counts with four 4 risk-sharing partners and suppliers. The RSP model was so successful, in a win-win relationship, that in the development projects that followed this one the numbers of partners has increased: Another evidence of the success of the model and benefit to the partners is that the bids from the suppliers interested in become a risksharing partner were higher and more aggressive in comparison with the ERJ family HBS, a.

The main benefit of this model41, from the engineering design perspective, is that through this practice product development managers get rid of the trap of common direct contract for development. Specification changes is an inescapable reality, due to the design spiral EVANS, model previously mentioned Every time specifications have to change in an ongoing project, the company had to renegotiate with all suppliers, bearing all additional costs from this operation, which is passed on to the aircraft final cost.

The model also demanded management modifications in the PDP. Figure 20 shows the general stages for establishing a development project with RSP. Adapted from HBS a and Figueiredo et al. Figure 20 Product development phases within Embraer's risk-sharing partnership model The main difference between this process and usual development frameworks, such as Asimow's 43, is the fact that suppliers are contacted in early stages of development, more precisely, something in-between late pre-development and early development, according to the tripartite division proposed by Rosenfeld et al.

Partners are contacted after general product definition is finished. After a process of qualification and selection of partners, all partners are called to participate at a phase called Joint Definition Phase JDP , highlighted in red in Figure After the JDP is finished, all development activities are performed in-house by the respective partners, under the supervision of 43 Presented in Figure 10, in page Periodical meetings are needed, though, which guarantees a close relationship between Embraer engineers and their partners.

The company takes advantage of the international presence of its partners to leverage its post-sales infrastructure. The RSP model has pros, but it also has potential cons. The main pros, previously mentioned, are the reduction of development lead-time and costs, which allowed Embraer to reach the leadership position in the regional jets market HBS, a , the sharing of risks and costs that are inherent to product development and the use of RSP infrastructure to customer services.

On the other hand, some negative points can be also pointed. One of them, noticed by Figueiredo et al. Another negative point, stressed by Niosi et Zhegu , is that by the RSP model, the knowledge is spread among the partners and, due to their global presence, reduces the importance of local knowledge flows and prevents the Brazilian cluster from being self-sufficient.

GETS is a strategically-driven approach that combines information and insights from several departments and plants into a unique technology system LIND, Each stage emphasizes a different type of logical thinking, as shown in Figure Quality assurance tools and continuous improvement techniques are in order for this stage. In addition, besides strategically-driven, GETS is also based on a systems engineering logic. That is to say, marketing and financial analyses are relegated to the background, when not neglected. The very space agency that specifies the product is the user. According to ECSS , the space product lifecycle is composed of seven phases, as follows.

At the end of this phase, all subsystems have a first complete model, although not tested or qualified. Virtual prototyping and testing may be required in this phase, according to the project philosophy. This model is then submitted to exhaustive testing and validation, in order to verify its performance under different environmental and stress conditions. Modifications in this model are performed when design problems are identified in the course of the validation.

This phase is essentially comprised of laboratory physical ground testing. Virtual tests may be also required, according to the project philosophy.

Once qualified, the project moves on to process design, when all arrangements for production and delivery of the product are organized. In this phase, the disposal plan is also finalized. Each of these project phases includes end milestones in the form of project reviews, listed in Table 4.

There may be more than one review at the end of a phase. Design reviews take place at the end of the phase, and are used to judge whether the project is ready to move on to the next phase. If problems are found in the review board, they have to be fixed and a new board is scheduled to a new round of revisions. If the system in revision is outsourced, the board is composed by members of the upper level customers up to the final user. Evaluates the requirements for each system that composes the products, as well as the interface requirements among them.

Evaluates whether the flight model is free of manufacturing problems, prior to delivery. Evaluates whether the flight model is fully operational and compability to flight systems, prior to delivery. Evaluates whether the flight model is fully operational, prior to launch.

Re-evaluates whether the flight model is fully operational, immediately prior to launch. Analysis of system performance, held after completion of the on-orbit commissioning activities. That is to say that the first reviews aim at verifying and accepting the very planning and conceptualization of the project, while the others are meant to verify whether the design process is carried out accordingly. PDP and collaboration As a conclusion for this section, one realizes that collaboration is a tendency in PDP research identified by many scholars in the field.

First of all, Brown and Eisenhardt identify the involvement of customers and suppliers as key factors for the success in product development. Besides, recapitulating the classification of PDP research provided by Liyanage et al. In aerospace product development, this work has identified and described, in section 2. Finally, within product design engineering, recent studies e. All these evidences point that this work is well-situated in the state-of-the-art of the research in the topic.

A paradigm shift happens when a phenomenon cannot be explained by a current the universally accepted paradigm, and requires an alternate approach for being understood. The paradigm, in Kuhn's view, is not simply the current theory, but the entire universe in which it exists, and all of the implications which come with it KUHN, In this sense, OI theory proposes that innovation should be seen and dealt with in a different way it used to be.

An approach to comprehend this new paradigm and its implications is to understand how the paradigm shift happened. Chesbrough a points out some of them. It is quite difficult for a company to keep the hegemony of knowledge within a technology field nowadays. Additionally, universities get much more funding from companies today than in the past, and are then likely to perform research on subjects of interest to the industry.

Virtuous cycle VC cycle break Source: Also Doz et al. The collapse is not uniform to all industrial sectors in terms of intensity and timing, though. To some industrial sectors, this collapse has already happen. To others, though, these erosion factors are not relevant issues, for the time being. To some sectors, the collapse may never happen.

Nevertheless, regardless of whether these changes constitute a paradigm shift in the kuhnian sense of the word, Chesbrough a has identified some significant shifts in the way innovation management ought to be dealt with, which can be summarized in the comparative chart of Table 6. Not all of the smart people work for us, so we must find and tap into the knowledge and expertise of bright individuals outside our company. If we discover it ourselves, we will get it to the market first.

If we are the firsts to commercialize an innovation, we will win. Building a better business model is better than getting to market first. If we create the most and best ideas in the industry, we will win. If we make the best use of internal and external ideas we will win. Chesbrough, b The development funnel in the open innovation model looks like the illustration in Figure Additionally, external ideas can be adapted to the internal development projects of the firm.

Among them, the definition that best suits the vision of this research, and which is also the most used definition in latest studies is the one that asserts that: Open innovation is the use of purposive inflows and outflows of knowledge to accelerate internal innovation, and expand the markets for external use of innovation, respectively. Open innovation means that companies should make much greater use of external ideas and technologies in their own business, while letting their unused ideas be used by other companies. This requires each company to open up its business model to let more external ideas and technologies flow in from the outside and let more internal knowledge flow to the outside.

In consonance with that definition, Gassmann and Enkel identify three archetypes or core processes that delineates OI scope from the process perspective. The three core processes are: Likewise, Lichtenthaler divides open innovation in two opposing technology transactions: It is evident the relation between these two transaction and what Gassmann and Enkel call outside-in and inside-out, respectively. Lichtenthaler Figure 28 Cluster analysis with respect to openess The contribution of Lichtenthaler to the literature is that, according to the extent of each transaction within a given scale, the author was able to identify some clusters that allowed him to group the companies targeted in his research within six 6 clusters, as Figure 28 illustrates.

According to this classification system, there are three types of OI: As a matter of fact, defining the extent of the domain of OI is still one of the tasks for scholars in the field WEST et al. An overview of the released material on OI is presented in the next section, in order to provide the reader some of the concepts under discussion among OI scholars. The question that remains is where the boundaries of open innovation would be.

In other words, in which extent open innovation impacts currently available literature on innovation. Is it different from the impact of PDP in the literature? According to this manual, there are four types of innovation: This includes significant improvements in technical specifications, components and materials, incorporated software, user friendliness or other functional characteristics. Enlightened by the definitions presented, one notices a difference in the scopes of PDP and OI research; while the first deals with TPP issues, the latter embraces all four types of innovation, i.

OI concepts are broadly applicable to many different fields under the subject innovation. Indeed, OI literature comprises studies relating its concepts to many other fields, such as: It is not within the scope of this work to perform a literature review on each one of these topics.

Nevertheless, there is one that must be addressed, since one of the hypothesis47 of this work make an analogy to the finding within this topic: During these years, many scholars were able to identify that SMEs have different challenges for innovation management, in comparison to big companies. These studies are generally consistent in asserting that if, on the one hand, SMEs lack enough resources for adopting formal structures and tools to innovate under a more regular basis, on the other hand, they work under more flexible procedures, count with proactive employees, have lesser bureaucratic barriers and a more direct communication link between operational staff and the top management, which all together provide a favorable environment for the emergence of innovations QUINN, ; VOSSEN, To verify that, Van de Vrande et al.

In this survey, it was found that SMEs are also engaged in many open innovation practices, and increasing during the previous seven years. As for the motives, the survey found that SMEs pursue OI primarily for market-related motives rather than by science-driven motives, as it often happens in large companies. Based on these findings, Van de Vrande et al. These findings contribute to the more general literature about innovation in SME, showing that also within openness SMEs have particularities with regard to big companies.

According to OI, user innovation advocates that companies should look for external paths to the market, by revealing internal technologies and allow external creativity to make use of it. The major difference between user and open innovation lies in the focus that is given to the use of the concept. While user innovators give great emphasis to value Lichtenthaler proposes a division of open innovation practices into two groups: From the point of view of scope, another difference between both theories is that OI is broader in the analysis, by considering users as one of various other external sources that could be involved in the innovation process.

One example is the lead user method, a different approach for collecting information about both needs and solutions from the leading edges of the target market and from analogue markets, markets facing similar problems in a more extreme form VON HIPPEL, This practice, along with the toolkits that follows it, is perfectly in line with OI principles and is often listed as an OI practice. It is not only the source code that is important but also the right to use it. The practice emerged as a reaction to the proprietary software model, reflecting an attempt by customers to reduce their dependence on software vendors.

This is not necessarily true in OI: West and Gallagher identify four possible open source strategies for OI: Confronting this definition to what has just been said about OSS development, one infers that open source is an example of peer production practice. They normally are enabled by the internet, where these self-organizing communities are gathered together.

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