Laura Lee Reed (Arizona Veteran Legacy Project)

John McCain

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Retrieved November 20, In print magazine as "Voice in the Wilderness", October 19, Retrieved September 21, Retrieved February 13, Retrieved May 22, Retrieved October 31, Retrieved April 6, Retrieved August 25, Retrieved November 3, Archived from the original on March 11, Retrieved November 15, Retrieved December 26, Retrieved May 11, Retrieved February 21, Retrieved August 7, Retrieved December 3, Retrieved March 7, Retrieved July 7, Retrieved December 20, Retrieved November 16, Syrian rebels need heavy weapons".

Retrieved April 3, Retrieved September 11, Retrieved February 2, Immigration-reform backers 'not winning'" , United Press International July 19, Retrieved August 1, Retrieved December 24, Retrieved October 19, Retrieved January 26, Retrieved June 14, Retrieved December 17, Retrieved December 4, Retrieved December 10, Retrieved June 10, Retrieved April 9, Retrieved April 15, Once friends, now foes".

Retrieved May 13, Saudi intervention in Yemen 'a bad idea'" , Al Jazeera April 17, Obama is 'directly responsible' for Orlando attack". That's some pretzel logic". Retrieved March 3, Retrieved May 7, Trump damages my reelection hopes" , Politico May 5, Retrieved August 24, Duty Demanded I Do It".

Retrieved May 12, Retrieved January 31, Retrieved January 6, Here's what he wants" , The Arizona Republic July 14, Iran has 'literally been getting away with murder ' ". Retrieved 1 September John McCain had aggressive brain tumor surgically removed". Retrieved July 20, Cancer doesn't know what it's up against. Give it hell, John". Retrieved July 23, Retrieved July 25, Archived from the original on July 29, Archived from the original on July 25, Obama and the Democrats shouldn't have pushed the Affordable Care Act through on party-line votes when they controlled Washington back in , McCain said, 'and we shouldn't do the same with ours.

Retrieved July 28, Retrieved April 16, Retrieved February 11, Republican Main Street Partnership. Retrieved October 4, John McCain, American 'maverick' and Arizona political giant, dies at age 81". Retrieved December 1, Retrieved August 27, Pastor describes senator as devout, but low-key updated ".

Bush deliver eulogies at funeral". Retrieved 4 September Country First ' ". Retrieved October 7, World leaders mourn Sen. Taiwan mourns the death of a 'determined friend ' ". McCain a friend and a fighter". Archived from the original on August 26, For more than 30 years, the standard method for gauging ideology has been to use the annual ratings of lawmakers' votes by various interest groups, notably the Americans for Democratic Action ADA and the American Conservative Union ACU.

Retrieved October 5, Lifetime rating is given. Average includes all years beginning with in House, collected from various parts of ADA website and calculated on spreadsheet. Archived from the original on November 19, National Journal 's methodology and criteria are explained in the "Guide to Usage" on pages 15— Almanac of American politics University of Chicago Press.

The almanac of American politics Retrieved February 26, Retrieved March 24, Retrieved May 20, Also see Nintzel, Jim. Retrieved May 21, Also see Stein, Jonathan. Non-partisan information about McCain's issue positions is also provided online by other sources.

People in the News". Conversely, though, we also want people in public life to be passionate and engaged. We want them to be fiery and feisty. We like them to care enough to blow their stacks every once in a while. Otherwise, we question the sincerity of their convictions.

Senators in the States: The surgery took place in Retrieved September 12, Retrieved April 8, Outdoors" , New York Post March 10, Retrieved September 3, Retrieved April 2, Retrieved April 11, Archived from the original on April 1, I feel passionately about issues, and the day that passion goes away is the day I will go down to the old soldiers' home and find my rocking chair.

And so, look, 20, 25 years ago, 15 years ago, that's fine, and those stories here are either totally untrue or grossly exaggerated. Retrieved April 28, Retrieved May 4, Thad Cochran of Mississippi, himself a past target of McCain's sharp tongue, especially over what McCain regarded as Cochran's hunger for pork-barrel projects in his state. Cochran landed in newspapers early during the campaign after declaring that the thought of McCain in the Oval Office 'sends a cold chill down my spine.

Retrieved February 27, Retrieved 2 September Retrieved July 24, Retrieved August 5, Retrieved June 23, Retrieved October 18, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. Retrieved 22 September Archived from the original on December 18, Retrieved May 9, CBS News May 15, Past Recipients" , The New School. Royal Military College of Canada. Retrieved 12 July Man of the People: Brock, David and Waldman, Paul. McCain, John and Salter, Mark. Chapter 1 available online.

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Republican nominee for President of the United States Senator Class 3 from Arizona — Served alongside: Chairman of the Senate Indian Affairs Committee — Chairman of the Senate Commerce Committee — Ranking Member of the Senate Commerce Committee Chairman of the Senate Commerce Committee Ranking Member of the Senate Commerce Committee — Chairman of the Senate Armed Services Committee — The study also found: Pain-related interference with function did not differ between opioid and non-opioid medication arms.

Pain intensity improved more in the non-opioid medication arm than in the opioid arm. Patient-reported medication side effects were worse in the opioid arm than in the non-opioid arm. Managed care executives can help by increasing access to and encouraging use of evidence-based chronic pain. This study did not examine treatment options for patients who are already on long-term opioid therapy. This model of collaborative telecare medication management is effective in improving pain medication management and highly applicable to managed care settings.

In , Arizonans died from opioid overdoses. Over half of the 1, drug overdose deaths last year were due to opioids as the primary cause of death. Opioids include heroin as well as prescription medication. The number of from opioid overdoses were analyzed. The deaths were heroin deaths alone has tripled since Historical patterns of encounters at hospifrom opioid-induced causes. Opioid-related hospital encounter rates have increased by percent over the past decade.

Everyone plays a role in combatting the opioid epidemic: Governor Ducey has declared a state of emergency in response to the opioid abuse epidemic in Arizona. More than two Arizonans die every day due to opioid overdose. Required reporting within 24 hours of the items below went into effect June 15, Required Reporters include the following: MEDSIS is the communicable disease reporting system, and it has been amended with new reporting fields. There must be a reduction in dangerous opioid use in Arizona. Avoid combined use of opioids and benzodiazepines, and advise patients of the risk of adverse events.

An eight-hour buprenorphine training course is required. A complete copy of the Arizona Opioid Report may be found online at http: Information and help are available for substance abuse problems at http: We serve more than 90, unique Veterans, and in the past year delivered more than 1 million outpatient appointments. PVAHCS offers outstanding educational programs enabling physicians and other health care professionals in providing superior medical care.

PVAHCS has a distinguished history of teaching physicians, nurses and other allied health professionals the latest, most advanced medical and surgical practices. We strongly believe that the needs of the Veteran come first. Therefore, we are committed to developing and maintaining distinguished educational activities to enhance and enrich medical knowledge and improve high quality care to our Veterans.

The PVAHCS CME program focuses on dissemination of latest research knowledge, which ensures that clinicians are equipped with the most timely and relevant information available. We also offer sessions on laws and policies affecting our Veterans and physicians. PVAHCS has a dedicated CME program to promote continuous improvement in patient health care by providing physicians and other health care professionals with high.

With the overall goal of improving physician knowledge and competency and enhancing performance in practice, the PVAHCS began providing continuing medical education in for our providers. The CME program started out small — with just one program for Primary Care Providers — but has now grown to seven programs. These programs are live courses, but also offer audio and video streaming as well as Lync online broadcast for those who cannot attend in person.

There are up to live activities offered throughout the year. In , 1, physicians and other learners earned a total of 63 hours of CME credits. We also provide reimbursement for physicians to attend the national, cutting-edge CME conferences and other expenses for continuing professional education. Pain Lectures, 8 to 9 a. Pain Champions from 8 to 9 a. Pain Management, a 4-hour quarterly lecture on specified dates June arizonaphysician. Our bodies fight off the viruses and bacteria that make us sick. The answer—discovered only recently—is that cancer cells actually release chemical signals that tell immune cells to stop fighting.

New drugs may help fight cancer by turning off those signals. Others kick-start immune responses against certain cancers or help the body generate super-charged cancer-killing immune cells. David Biglari dwells in the world of the heart — both literally and figuratively.

Admiration for sophisticated machines When David Biglari was only 11 years old, his family experienced a scare when his mother was diagnosed with an inoperable coronary artery disease. Later, it was decided she did not actually have the disease, but it was this experience that Biglari said planted the earliest seeds of his interest in medicine. His interest continued throughout his early school years, with human physiology particularly capturing his attention in high school biology classes.

He attended medical school at Midwestern University, in Glendale, Arizona. After graduating, he moved to Henry Ford, Michigan, where he began a residency in neurological surgery. However, one year into the program, Biglari decided to switch his specialty focus to cardiology, and he returned to Arizona to complete his internship and residency at the University College of Medicine - Phoenix. He also completed several fellowship training programs in Phoenix — in Cardiovascular medicine, and interventional cardiology.

VA from the start Aside from the year spent in Michigan in neurosurgery, Biglari settled immediately into practice in Arizona. He and his team have helped develop the cardiac interventional program, which is set to go live later this year. Aside from his clinical and administrative duties, he is also involved in teaching and training medical students, interns, residents, and fellows in the field of cardiology.

Biglari was drawn to a career with the VA after getting acquainted with the patient population during his training, and is honored to feel such genuine care for those he works with and cares for. And he has had a home ever since. The best care With much public and political debate over the options available to veterans when it comes to medical care, several topics are at the forefront, one being whether veterans should have access to care at institutions other than VA hospitals and clinics, while still maintaining their VA coverage and services.

The coherent and comprehensive care network of the VA is not matched in any other system, he believes. And, while certainly most any doctor has the well-being and best interest of their patient in mind, Biglari asserts that those who work at VA medical centers have a deep-rooted belief in their mission, and are truly devoted to serving those veterans in need. Mills and his wife, Dena, enjoying a desert hike. Frequently veterans have occasion to access healthcare on both sides — necessitating coordination between the VA. While certainly no system is perfect — all have issues and shortcomings — in the end everyone needs to do what they can to contribute to quality veteran care.

Of course the best care for veterans is not limited to treating physical ailments. With the prevalence of post-traumatic stress disorder PTSD present in those returning from active duty, it is more important than ever for veteran care facilities and systems to have robust and effective mental health branches. Fortunately, increased research as well as recent world-wide awareness campaigns have pushed for a more open and accepting discourse concerning mental health.

These changes signify one of many positive approaches the VA system takes to ensure top quality veteran care. Biglari describes continuous efforts to improve and expand in all areas, even including parking. In fact, Biglari says these are cornerstones for some major conditions that we treat. The VA has long been a pioneer in expanding care outside the walls of a clinic or hospital. In Phoenix, the VA has a mobile medical unit MMU fully outfitted with state-of the-art equipment and mobile exam rooms, ensuring that June arizonaphysician.

In addition to more standard mobile medical equipment, the MMU is also stocked with multiple tablet computers, so that veterans seeking care in the mobile unit can connect for sessions and evaluations with providers based in the VA in Phoenix at any time. Challenges Certainly every healthcare system, large or small, faces challenges.

Barry Goldwater

The VA has challenges unique to their calling, and does not face some of the same barriers as other institutions. For one thing, the VA does not have quotas to meet, or other financial obligations or incentives. With less pressure, Biglari feels blessed to spend more time with each of his patients, listening to their stories, and ensuring they are well taken care of. Healthcare throughout America has been crippled by interoperability issues between health records systems. Differences in systems across fields makes record sharing, transfer, and tracking a constant struggle.

While Biglari has experienced the frustration of waiting for records, he says this is not really an issue of care. Caring for veterans, wherever they receive their care whether VA or Department of Defense or the private sector is still a priority. Another issue society is grappling with is homelessness, especially among veterans. The main challenge for healthcare with those experiencing homelessness is a lack of routine follow-ups, and a compliance with medications and other therapies.

The challenge of caring for homeless vets is no different, although Biglari says the VA in fact has solid support structures in place to help with compliance and follow-ups for vets experiencing homelessness, essentially ensuring they get the care they need. Veteran Tickets Foundation provides free event tickets to currently serving military, veterans, and military family members to sporting events, concerts, performing arts, and family activities. What is your favorite food, and favorite restaurant in the Valley? We enjoy exploring around the state for restaurants new to us. We are always on the hunt for hole-in-the-wall places where one can find the best foods and secret recipes of every town and city hidden away.

Favorite Arizona sports team college or pro? I truly enjoy what I do day in and day out. I have no doubt it was my calling to be a healer of the hearts. If for some reason I were held back from doing this, I probably would end up as a producer or sound engineer. I was in a Rock band when in high school, long hair and everything.

I played the Bass guitar. My adolescent and early adulthood really were shaped partly by influences from these bands. Favorite activity outside of medicine? Spending time with my family is the most joyous activity for me. We love going to cities all across AZ and exploring. We love driving up to our favorite city, Jerome, and spending the day. When not with the family, I love riding my bicycle across the wide-open spaces of the Valley, exploring record stores and antique shops for treasure hunting.

My wife Ciara, and I met in medical school, she graciously gave up a very successful practice to care for our family. We love living in AZ and raising our family. The Health Law Forum was the first of its kind hosted by the Society, and we look forward to many more.

And, of course, a huge thank you to our long-time partner, MICA, for sponsoring the event. Mild May temperatures held steady, and the weather was perfect. Guests enjoyed drinks and delicacies provided by Tasteful Event Serving. Denny Collins photographed the evening. Panelists responded to questions submitted by guests in advance, as well as live questions during the program. Questions covered topics such as liability, hipaa, licensing, pre-authorization, and other concerns.

We thank everyone who participated in the survey and provided comments, which were invaluable in shedding light on the experience of training, delivering, and receiving care with the VA system. For this write up, we focused on comments provided by physicians who have either received and given care within the VA system. Training at the VA Those who received training at the VA consistently appreciated working with the veteran population. It was at a VA that I first felt respect and independence as a physician.

There is no private or academic setting that matches the VA experience. There I witnessed care which ranged from heroic to substandard, often in the same institution. Although there are many excellent, devoted people working within the VA system, there are also those who would have been dismissed years ago if in the private sector including general staff, administrators and providers. Our veterans deserve much better. The system needs to be cleaned out, overhauled and vets given access to care outside the VA system whenever necessary.

Private practice and community care of veterans Accessing care outside of the VA was facilitated several years ago through legislation establishing the Veterans Choice Program, which allows veterans to seek alternative A number of respondents saw value in this system and its ability to counter inadequacies in the VA system related to access.

There are few specialists. Access to excellent mental health programs is limited. The consequence has been and still is long waits for appointments and care, especially in the specialties and sub specialties…I believe that [Veterans Choice Program] should be expanded to allow veterans free choice of available providers even within 50 miles of VA facilities.

Most of those issues would not be service connected. How should the VA allocate future investment? Allocate funding to purchase outside care non-VA providers Balance investments in its own clinical operations with outside care Only allocate funding to improve existing clinical operations Not sure. VA does not have the expertise to treat all the conditions they are mandated to treat. Physicians and surgeons known by the VA or Tri-care will get excellent care through direct referral to independent private providers with good track records who continue to distinguish themselves in the community.

Stonewall Jackson

Unfortunately, I see too many patients who complain of difficulty being seen in a timely manner at the VA and who also express frustration regarding the quality of care they receive. I also have a patient that moved from Tucson and still has physicians at that VA. If he wants to keep the physicians he likes, he has to stay at that VA, which means that he has to get bloodwork drawn there.

Veterans and Seniors on Medicare…Why not turn this into a true federally-funded entity? Send all Vets and Medicare recipients to VA hospitals and, instead of closing and reorganization VA catchment centers, rebuild the infrastructure and enlarge it. Veteran health issues While it is common to see media coverage of combat-related health issues in veterans, several respondents identified the concern for preventable health issues due to cultural aspects of armed service.

There were many cases of alcoholic liver disease, and frequent bleeding gastric ulcers. Quality of care for veterans While roadblocks remain to accessing care, a number of survey respondents stated their confidence in the actual care provided within the VA system. VA hospital I found the quality of medical care was quite good.

Generally, the knowledge and motivation of the medical professionals and supplementary personal were very good. The big problem is within administration and the remuneration they receive for meeting their goals. Typically, administration and bureaucracy impair Veteran care as well as provider hiring and retention. This is the problem. Administrators are totally out of touch with patient care. When surgery is needed, long wait lists are involved sometimes postponing medically urgent needed surgery until it is too little and too late.

For our veterans to receive quality health care it is necessary that the providers with the most education and training remain in charge of that care. This is especially true in the high acuity setting of in-hospital and emergency care. The operating room is not the place to reduce physician input to acute care as in the recent proposal fortunately withdrawn to allow nurse anesthetists to practice independently. VA health information technology Several respondents pointed to the innovative and up-to-date electronic medical record system used within the VA.

It is sad that the cloud of wishing failure from our media blinds the eyes of seeing the truth. Update that information with the monthly questionnaires and allow not only access but use of that EMR to the private sector physicians and hospitals. This would save everyone a lot of money and could potentially be used by all U. Major measles Between and , the United States experienced a major outbreak of measles which mostly affected preschool-aged children. State and County Public Health Departments, professional organizations, managed care plans, community health centers, hospitals, hospitals, HMOs, nonprofit community health and social service agencies, fire departments, medical organizations like the Arizona Academy of Pediatrics, Arizona Medical Association, Arizona Osteopathic Medical Association and Arizona Association of Family Practice , pharmaceutical companies, businesses, media such as The Arizona Republic and Arizona Broadcasters Association , businesses such as Bank One and McDonalds , daycare centers, Head Start programs, the Junior League, the Urban League, the Phoenix Suns, and even the faith community.

Arizona physicians rely on ASIIS to determine the vaccines a child needs and to help keep families up-to-date on age-appropriate vaccinations. As technology became integrated into medical practices, TAPI recognized the need to educate people who worked in physician offices and clinics. Training on Immunization Practices TIPS , an education and training program, was created for medical office staff throughout the state. Registration is available at www. The website provides medical and scientifically valid information about the risks and benefits of vaccines, and includes free resources and education material for medical professionals and community partners.

Last year, over , items were distributed throughout Arizona and beyond. And TAPI has developed a reputation as an innovator. When the rules for publically funded vaccines became more restrictive and TAPI noted that insured patients were having difficulty finding a place to receive vaccines, a new project was launched to bill for vaccines provided by county health departments.

The reimbursements above staffing costs are returned to county health departments and are used to support vaccine safety net programs throughout Arizona. Doctors and community commitment make a difference After Dr. Cloud passed away in the summer of , TAPI looked for another physician known in the community and they found Dr. Jacobson a willing successor to Dan Cloud. Physician leadership was critical because of all the partners TAPI works with.

Probably another hero of the group, actually, is Jim McPherson. Make sure your voice service is up to the task. IP Centrex provides all the utility of a large-scale solution on a smallclinic budget and scalability to grow with your practice. When Virginia declared its secession from the Union in April , Lee chose to follow his home state, despite his desire for the country to remain intact and an offer of a senior Union command.

Once he took command of the main field army in he soon emerged as a shrewd tactician and battlefield commander, winning most of his battles, all against far superior Union armies. Grant at Appomattox Court House on April 9, By this time, Lee had assumed supreme command of the remaining Southern armies; other Confederate forces swiftly capitulated after his surrender. Lee rejected the proposal of a sustained insurgency against the Union and called for reconciliation between the two sides. In , after the war, Lee was paroled and signed an oath of allegiance , asking to have his citizenship of the United States restored.

Lee's application was misplaced; as a result, he did not receive a pardon and his citizenship was not restored. In , the U. Congress posthumously restored Lee's citizenship effective June 13, Lee opposed the construction of public memorials to Confederate rebellion on the grounds that they would prevent the healing of wounds inflicted during the war. His birth date has traditionally been recorded as January 19, , but according to the historian Elizabeth Brown Pryor , "Lee's writings indicate he may have been born the previous year.

Lee's mother grew up at Shirley Plantation , one of the most elegant homes in Virginia. Little is known of Lee as a child; he rarely spoke of his boyhood as an adult. When given the opportunity to visit his father's Georgia grave, he remained there only briefly; yet, during his time as president of Washington College, he defended his father in a biographical sketch while editing Light Horse Harry's memoirs.

In , Harry Lee was put in debtors prison ; soon after his release the following year, Harry and Anne Lee and their five children moved to a small house on Cameron Street in Alexandria, Virginia , both because there were then high quality local schools there, and because several members of her extended family lived nearby. In , Harry Lee was badly injured in a political riot in Baltimore and traveled to the West Indies.

He would never return, dying when his son Robert was eleven years old. Although brought up to be a practicing Christian, he was not confirmed in the Episcopal Church until age Anne Lee's family was often supported by a relative, William Henry Fitzhugh , who owned the Oronoco Street house and allowed the Lees to stay at his home in Fairfax County , Ravensworth. Fitzhugh wrote little of Robert's academic prowess, dwelling much on the prominence of his family, and erroneously stated the boy was Instead of mailing the letter, Fitzhugh had young Robert deliver it.

Lee entered West Point in the summer of At the time, the focus of the curriculum was engineering; the head of the Army Corps of Engineers supervised the school and the superintendent was an engineering officer. Cadets were not permitted leave until they had finished two years of study, and were rarely allowed off the Academy grounds. Lee graduated second in his class, behind only Charles Mason , [28] who resigned from the Army a year after graduation.

In June , Lee was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers.

The plan was to build a fort on the marshy island which would command the outlet of the Savannah River. Lee was involved in the early stages of construction as the island was being drained and built up. While home in the summer of , Lee had apparently courted Mary Custis whom he had known as a child. Lee obtained permission to write to her before leaving for Georgia, though Mary Custis warned Lee to be "discreet" in his writing, as her mother read her letters, especially from men.

Lee's duties at Fort Monroe were varied, typical for a junior officer, and ranged from budgeting to designing buildings. Although the two were by all accounts devoted to each other, they were different in character: Robert Lee was tidy and punctual, qualities his wife lacked. Mary Lee also had trouble transitioning from being a rich man's daughter to having to manage a household with only one or two slaves. Life at Fort Monroe was marked by conflicts between artillery and engineering officers.

Eventually the War Department transferred all engineering officers away from Fort Monroe, except Lee, who was ordered to take up residence on the artificial island of Rip Raps across the river from Fort Monroe, where Fort Wool would eventually rise, and continue work to improve the island. Lee duly moved there, then discharged all workers and informed the War Department he could not maintain laborers without the facilities of the fort.

In , Lee was transferred to Washington as General Gratiot's assistant.

Mary Lee, who had recently given birth to their second child, remained bedridden for several months. In October , Lee was promoted to first lieutenant. Lee served as an assistant in the chief engineer's office in Washington, D. As a first lieutenant of engineers in , he supervised the engineering work for St. Louis harbor and for the upper Mississippi and Missouri rivers.

Among his projects was the mapping of the Des Moines Rapids on the Mississippi above Keokuk, Iowa , where the Mississippi's mean depth of 2. His work there earned him a promotion to captain. Around , Captain Robert E. Lee arrived as Fort Hamilton 's post engineer. Artillery served as honor guard at the marriage. They eventually had seven children, three boys and four girls: All the children survived him except for Annie, who died in Lee was a great-great-great grandson of William Randolph and a great-great grandson of Richard Bland.

Hill 's daughter, Lucy Lee Hill, to serve as her godfather. Lee distinguished himself in the Mexican—American War — He was instrumental in several American victories through his personal reconnaissance as a staff officer; he found routes of attack that the Mexicans had not defended because they thought the terrain was impassable. He was promoted to brevet major after the Battle of Cerro Gordo on April 18, By the end of the war, he had received additional brevet promotions to lieutenant colonel and colonel, but his permanent rank was still captain of engineers, and he would remain a captain until his transfer to the cavalry in For the first time, Robert E.

Lee and Ulysses S. Grant met and worked with each other during the Mexican—American War. Close observations of their commanders constituted a learning process for both Lee and Grant. During this time, his service was interrupted by other duties, among them surveying and updating maps in Florida. In , searching for a leader for his filibuster expedition, he approached Jefferson Davis, then a United States senator. Davis declined and suggested Lee, who also declined. Both decided it was inconsistent with their duties. The s were a difficult time for Lee, with his long absences from home, the increasing disability of his wife, troubles in taking over the management of a large slave plantation, and his often morbid concern with his personal failures.

His wife occasionally came to visit. Lee improved the buildings and courses and spent much time with the cadets. Custis Lee graduated in , first in his class. Lee was enormously relieved to receive a long-awaited promotion as second-in-command of the 2nd Cavalry Regiment in Texas in It meant leaving the Engineering Corps and its sequence of staff jobs for the combat command he truly wanted.

In , his father-in-law George Washington Parke Custis died, creating a serious crisis when Lee took on the burden of executing the will. Custis's will encompassed vast landholdings and hundreds of slaves balanced against massive debts, and required Custis's former slaves "to be emancipated by my executors in such manner as to my executors may seem most expedient and proper, the said emancipation to be accomplished in not exceeding five years from the time of my decease.

Lee's cruelty on the Arlington plantation nearly led to a slave revolt, since many of the slaves had been given to understand that they were to be made free as soon as Custis died, and protested angrily at the delay. Lee ruptured the Washington and Custis tradition of respecting slave families and by he had broken up every family but one on the estate, some of whom had been together since Mount Vernon days. In , three of the Arlington slaves—Wesley Norris, his sister Mary, and a cousin of theirs—fled for the North, but were captured a few miles from the Pennsylvania border and forced to return to Arlington.

On June 24, , the anti-slavery newspaper New York Daily Tribune published two anonymous letters dated June 19, [62] and June 21, [63] , each claiming to have heard that Lee had the Norrises whipped, and each going so far as to claim that the overseer refused to whip the woman but that Lee took the whip and flogged her personally. Lee privately wrote to his son Custis that "The N.

Tribune has attacked me for my treatment of your grandfather's slaves, but I shall not reply. He has left me an unpleasant legacy. Wesley Norris himself spoke out about the incident after the war, in an interview printed in an abolitionist newspaper, the National Anti-Slavery Standard. Norris stated that after they had been captured, and forced to return to Arlington, Lee told them that "he would teach us a lesson we would not soon forget. Norris claimed that Lee encouraged the whipping, and that when the overseer refused to do it, called in the county constable to do it instead.

Unlike the anonymous letter writers, he does not state that Lee himself whipped any of the slaves. According to Norris, Lee "frequently enjoined [Constable] Williams to 'lay it on well,' an injunction which he did not fail to heed; not satisfied with simply lacerating our naked flesh, Gen. Lee then ordered the overseer to thoroughly wash our backs with brine , which was done. The Norris men were then sent by Lee's agent to work on the railroads in Virginia and Alabama. According to the interview, Norris was sent to Richmond in January "from which place I finally made my escape through the rebel lines to freedom.

Biographers of Lee have differed over the credibility of the account of the punishment as described in the letters in the Tribune and in Norris's personal account. They broadly agree that Lee had a group of escaped slaves recaptured, and that after recapturing them he hired them out off of the Arlington plantation as a punishment; but they disagree over the likelihood that Lee flogged them, and over the charge that he personally whipped Mary Norris.

In , Douglas S. Freeman described them as "Lee's first experience with the extravagance of irresponsible antislavery agitators" and asserted that "There is no evidence, direct or indirect, that Lee ever had them or any other Negroes flogged. The usage at Arlington and elsewhere in Virginia among people of Lee's station forbade such a thing.

Lee , found the claims that Lee had personally whipped Mary Norris "extremely unlikely," but found it not at all unlikely that Lee had ordered the runaways whipped: Although it was supposed to be applied only in a calm and rational manner, overtly physical domination of slaves, unchecked by law, was always brutal and potentially savage. In , Bernice-Marie Yates's The Perfect Gentleman , cited Freeman's denial and followed his account in holding that, because of Lee's family connections to George Washington, he "was a prime target for abolitionists who lacked all the facts of the situation.

Lee biographer Elizabeth Brown Pryor concluded in that "the facts are verifiable," based on "the consistency of the five extant descriptions of the episode the only element that is not repeatedly corroborated is the allegation that Lee gave the beatings himself , as well as the existence of an account book that indicates the constable received compensation from Lee on the date that this event occurred.

In , Michael Korda wrote that "Although these letters are dismissed by most of Lee's biographers as exaggerated, or simply as unfounded abolitionist propaganda, it is hard to ignore them. Several historians have noted the paradoxical nature of Lee's beliefs and actions concerning race and slavery.

While Lee protested he had sympathetic feelings for blacks, they were subordinate to his own racial identity. While both Robert and his wife Mary Lee were disgusted with slavery, they also defended it against Abolitionist demands for immediate emancipation for all enslaved. Like Washington, Lee's father-in-law G. Parke Custis freed his slaves in his will. Also, according to historian Richard B. McCaslin, Lee was a gradual emancipationist, denouncing extremist proposals for immediate abolition of slavery.

Lee rejected what he called evilly motivated political passion, fearing a civil and servile war from precipitous emancipation. Historian Elizabeth Brown Pryor offered an alternative interpretation of Lee's voluntary manumission of slaves in his will, and assisting slaves to a life of freedom in Liberia, seeing Lee as conforming to a "primacy of slave law". She wrote that Lee's private views on race and slavery,. On taking on the role of administrator for the Parke Custis will, Lee used a provision to retain them in slavery to produce income for the estate to retire debt.

While all the estates prospered under his administration, Lee was unhappy at direct participation in slavery as a hated institution. Even before what Michael Fellman called a "sorry involvement in actual slave management", Lee judged the experience of white mastery to be a greater moral evil to the white man than blacks suffering under the "painful discipline" of slavery which introduced Christianity, literacy and a work ethic to the "heathen African".

By the time of Lee's career in the U. Army, the officers of West Point stood aloof from political-party and sectional strife on such issues as slavery, as a matter of principle, and Lee adhered to the principle. Breckinridge , who was the extreme pro-slavery candidate in the presidential election, not John Bell , the more moderate Southerner who won Virginia.

Lee himself owned a small number of slaves in his lifetime and considered himself a paternalistic master. He was definitely involved in administering the day-to-day operations of a plantation and was involved in the recapture of runaway slaves. Lee claimed that he found slavery bothersome and time-consuming as an everyday institution to run. In an letter to his wife, he maintained that slavery was a great evil, but primarily due to adverse impact that it had on white people: It is useless to expatiate on its disadvantages.

Foner writes that "Lee's code of gentlemanly conduct did not seem to apply to blacks" during the War, as he did not stop his soldiers from kidnapping free black farmers and selling them into slavery. McPherson noted that Lee initially rejected a prisoner exchange between the Confederacy and the Union when the Union demanded that black Union soldiers be included.

Liddell , which noted Lee would be hard-pressed in the interior of Virginia by spring, and the need to consider Patrick Cleburne 's plan to emancipate the slaves and put all men in the army who were willing to join. Lee was said to have agreed on all points and desired to get black soldiers, saying "he could make soldiers out of any human being that had arms and legs. After the War, Lee told a congressional committee that blacks were "not disposed to work" and did not possess the intellectual capacity to vote and participate in politics.

In the generation following the war, Lee, though he died just a few years later, became a central figure in the Lost Cause interpretation of the war. The argument that Lee had always somehow opposed slavery, and freed his wife's slaves, helped maintain his stature as a symbol of Southern honor and national reconciliation. A Biography , which was for a long period considered the definitive work on Lee, downplayed his involvement in slavery and emphasized Lee as a virtuous person. Eric Foner, who describes Freeman's volume as a " hagiography ", notes that on the whole, Freeman "displayed little interest in Lee's relationship to slavery.

The index to his four volumes contained 22 entries for 'devotion to duty', 19 for 'kindness', 53 for Lee's celebrated horse, Traveller. But 'slavery', 'slave emancipation' and 'slave insurrection' together received five. Freeman observed, without offering details, that slavery in Virginia represented the system 'at its best'.

He ignored the postwar testimony of Lee's former slave Wesley Norris about the brutal treatment to which he had been subjected. Lee was at both events. Lee initially remained loyal to the Union after Texas seceded. John Brown led a band of 21 abolitionists who seized the federal arsenal at Harpers Ferry , Virginia, in October , hoping to incite a slave rebellion. President James Buchanan gave Lee command of detachments of militia, soldiers, and United States Marines , to suppress the uprising and arrest its leaders.

At dawn, Brown refused the demand for surrender. Lee attacked, and Brown and his followers were captured after three minutes of fighting. Lee's summary report of the episode shows Lee believed it "was the attempt of a fanatic or madman". Lee said Brown achieved "temporary success" by creating panic and confusion and by "magnifying" the number of participants involved in the raid.

Lee relieved Major Heintzelman at Fort Brown , and the Mexican authorities offered to restrain "their citizens from making predatory descents upon the territory and people of Texas Rip Ford , a Texas Ranger at the time, described Lee as "dignified without hauteur, grand without pride Twiggs surrendered all the American forces about 4, men, including Lee, and commander of the Department of Texas to the Texans. Twiggs immediately resigned from the U. Army and was made a Confederate general.

Lee's colonelcy was signed by the new President, Abraham Lincoln. Three weeks after his promotion, Colonel Lee was offered a senior command with the rank of Major General in the expanding Army to fight the Southern States that had left the Union. Unlike many Southerners who expected a glorious war, Lee correctly predicted it as protracted and devastating. The South, in my opinion, has been aggrieved by the acts of the North, as you say.

I feel the aggression, and am willing to take every proper step for redress. It is the principle I contend for, not individual or private benefit. As an American citizen, I take great pride in my country, her prosperity and institutions, and would defend any State if her rights were invaded. But I can anticipate no greater calamity for the country than a dissolution of the Union.

It would be an accumulation of all the evils we complain of, and I am willing to sacrifice everything but honor for its preservation. I hope, therefore, that all constitutional means will be exhausted before there is a resort to force. Secession is nothing but revolution. The framers of our Constitution never exhausted so much labor, wisdom, and forbearance in its formation, and surrounded it with so many guards and securities, if it was intended to be broken by every member of the Confederacy at will. It was intended for "perpetual union," so expressed in the preamble, and for the establishment of a government, not a compact, which can only be dissolved by revolution, or the consent of all the people in convention assembled.

Despite opposing secession, Lee said in January that "we can with a clear conscience separate" if all peaceful means failed. He agreed with secessionists in most areas, such as dislike of Northern anti-slavery criticisms and prevention of expanding slavery to new territories, and fear of its larger population. Lee supported the Crittenden Compromise , which would have constitutionally protected slavery.

Lee's objection to secession was ultimately outweighed by a sense of personal honor, reservations about the legitimacy of a strife-ridden "Union that can only be maintained by swords and bayonets", and duty to defend his native Virginia if attacked. Although Virginia had the most slaves of any state, it was more similar to Maryland, which stayed in the Union, than the Deep South; a convention voted against secession in early Scott, commanding general of the Union Army and Lee's mentor, told Lincoln he wanted him for a top command, telling Secretary of War Simon Cameron that he had "entire confidence" in Lee.

He accepted a promotion to colonel of the 1st Cavalry Regiment on March 28, again swearing an oath to the United States.

After Lincoln's call for troops to put down the rebellion, a second Virginia convention in Richmond voted to secede [] on April 17, and a May 23 referendum would likely ratify the decision. That night Lee dined with brother Smith and cousin Phillips , naval officers. Because of Lee's indecision, Phillips went to the War Department the next morning to warn that the Union might lose his cousin if the government did not act quickly.

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In Washington that day, [] Lee was offered by presidential advisor Francis P. Blair a role as major general to command the defense of the national capital. Blair, I look upon secession as anarchy. If I owned the four millions of slaves in the South I would sacrifice them all to the Union; but how can I draw my sword upon Virginia, my native state? Lee immediately went to Scott, who tried to persuade him that Union forces would be large enough to prevent the South from fighting, so he would not have to oppose his state; Lee disagreed. When Lee asked if he could go home and not fight, the fellow Virginian said that the army did not need equivocal soldiers and that if he wanted to resign, he should do so before receiving official orders.

Scott told him that he had made "the greatest mistake of your life". Lee agreed that to avoid dishonor he had to resign before receiving unwanted orders. While historians have usually called his decision inevitable "the answer he was born to make", wrote Douglas Southall Freeman ; another called it a "no-brainer" given the ties to family and state, an letter from his eldest daughter, Mary Custis Lee, to a biographer described Lee as "worn and harassed" yet calm as he deliberated alone in his office. People on the street noticed Lee's grim face as he tried to decide over the next two days, and he later said that he kept the resignation letter for a day before sending it on April Two days later the Richmond convention invited Lee to the city.

It elected him as commander of Virginia state forces before his arrival on April 23, and almost immediately gave him George Washington's sword as symbol of his appointment; whether he was told of a decision he did not want without time to decide, or did want the excitement and opportunity of command, is unclear. A cousin on Scott's staff told the family that Lee's decision so upset Scott that he collapsed on a sofa and mourned as if he had lost a son, and asked to not hear Lee's name.

When Lee told family his decision he said "I suppose you will all think I have done very wrong", as the others were mostly pro-Union; only Mary Custis was a secessionist, and her mother especially wanted to choose the Union but told her husband that she would support whatever he decided. Many younger men like nephew Fitzhugh wanted to support the Confederacy, but Lee's three sons joined the Confederate military only after their father's decision. Most family members like brother Smith reluctantly also chose the South, but Smith's wife and Anne, Lee's sister, still supported the Union; Anne's son joined the Union Army, and no one in his family ever spoke to Lee again.

Many cousins fought for the Confederacy, but Phillips and John Fitzgerald told Lee in person that they would uphold their oaths; John H. Upshur stayed with the Union military despite much family pressure; Roger Jones stayed in the Union army after Lee refused to advise him on what to do; and two of Philip Fendall 's sons fought for the Union. Forty percent of Virginian officers stayed with the North. At the outbreak of war, Lee was appointed to command all of Virginia's forces, but upon the formation of the Confederate States Army, he was named one of its first five full generals.

Lee did not wear the insignia of a Confederate general, but only the three stars of a Confederate colonel, equivalent to his last U. Lee's first field assignment was commanding Confederate forces in western Virginia, where he was defeated at the Battle of Cheat Mountain and was widely blamed for Confederate setbacks. Between then and the fall of Fort Pulaski , April 11, , he put in place a defense of Savannah that proved successful in blocking Federal advance on Savannah.

Confederate fort and naval gunnery dictated night time movement and construction by the besiegers. Federal preparations required four months. In those four months, Lee developed a defense in depth.

Behind Fort Pulaski on the Savannah River, Fort Jackson was improved, and two additional batteries covered river approaches. The City of Savannah would not fall until Sherman's approach from the interior at the end of At first, the press spoke to the disappointment of losing Fort Pulaski.

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