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The microblog Twitter played an important role during the Iranian election protests , after foreign journalists had effectively been "barred from reporting". Twitter delayed scheduled maintenance during the protests that would have shut down coverage in Iran due to the role it played in public communication.
Sometimes citizen journalists are, at the same time, bloggers and after some time they often become professional journalists , just as [ when? Today, individually produced citizen journalism exists in the form of social media platforms such as blogs , YouTube , and Twitter.
These social media platforms encourage and facilitate engagement with other citizens who participate in creating content through commenting, liking, linking, and sharing. This practice is considered to be the 21st century version of individualized citizen journalism. The first wave of this type of citizen journalism came about in the form of amateur news bloggers. These bloggers often created content and narrative that challenged and critiqued the mainstream news outlets. The majority of the content produced by these amateur news bloggers was not actually original content, but curated information that was primarily monitored and edited by these various bloggers.
However, recently there has been a decline in the amateur news blogger due to social media platforms that are much easier to run and maintain. These social media platforms allow individuals to easily share and create and content. Wikimedia Foundation hosts a participatory journalism web site, Wikinews. Citizen journalists also may be activists within the communities they write about.
This has drawn some criticism from traditional media institutions such as The New York Times , which have accused proponents of public journalism of abandoning the traditional goal of objectivity. Many traditional journalists view citizen journalism with some skepticism, believing that only trained journalists can understand the exactitude and ethics involved in reporting news.
An academic paper by Vincent Maher, the head of the New Media Lab at Rhodes University, outlined several weaknesses in the claims made by citizen journalists, in terms of the "three deadly E's", referring to ethics, economics, and epistemology. An analysis by language and linguistics professor, Patricia Bou-Franch, found that some citizen journalists resorted to abuse-sustaining discourses naturalizing violence against women.
She found that these discourses were then challenged by others who questioned the gendered ideologies of male violence against women. An article in by Tom Grubisich reviewed ten new citizen journalism sites and found many of them lacking in quality and content. Also according to the article, the sites with the weakest editorial content were able to expand aggressively because they had stronger financial resources.
Another article published on Pressthink examined Backfence, a citizen journalism site with three initial locations in the D. The site recently launched for Arlington, Virginia. However, without more settlers, Backfence may wind up creating more ghost towns. David Simon , a former Baltimore Sun reporter and writer-producer of the popular television series, " The Wire ," criticized the concept of citizen journalism—claiming that unpaid bloggers who write as a hobby cannot replace trained, professional, seasoned journalists.
An editorial published by The Digital Journalist web magazine expressed a similar position, advocating to abolish the term "citizen journalist", and replacing it with "citizen news gatherer". There is either a fire line or police line, or security, or the Secret Service who allow them to pass upon displaying credentials vetted by the departments or agencies concerned.
A citizen journalist, an amateur, will always be on the outside of those lines. Imagine the White House throwing open its gates to admit everybody with a camera phone to a presidential event. While the fact that citizen journalists can report in real time and are not subject to oversight opens them to criticism about the accuracy of their reporting, news stories presented by mainstream media also misreport facts occasionally that are reported correctly by citizen journalists. Journalism has been affected significantly due to citizen journalism.
This is because citizen journalism allows people to post as much content as they want, whenever they want. In order to stay competitive, traditional news sources are forcing their journalist to compete. This means that journalist now have to write, edit and add pictures into their content and they must do so at a rapid pace, as it is perceived by news companies that it's essential for journalist to produce content at the same rate that citizens can post content on the internet. This is hard though, as many news companies are facing budget cuts and cannot afford to pay journalists the proper amount for the amount of work they do.
Edward Greenberg, a New York City litigator, [60] notes higher vulnerability of unprofessional journalists in court compared to the professional ones:. On occasion, the protection is dependent on whether the person [who] asserted the claim is in fact a journalist. Cases involving libel often hinge on whether the actor was or was not a member of the "press". The view stated above does not mean that professional journalists are fully protected by shield laws.
In the Branzburg v.
Hayes case the Supreme Court of the United States invalidated the use of the First Amendment as a defense for reporters summoned to testify before a grand jury. In , the reporter's privilege of Judith Miller and Matthew Cooper was rejected by the appellate court. Citizen journalism has largely increased during the last decade of the twentieth century and throughout the twenty-first century.
This rise of participation can be associated with the creation of the internet which introduced new ways in communicating and engaging news. Due to this shift in technology, individuals were able to access more news than previously and at a much faster rate. This larger quantity also made it so there was a larger variety of sources which people were able to consume media and news. Natalie Fenton [61] discusses the role of citizen journalism within the digital age and has three characteristics associated with the topic: These characteristics were due to the invention of the internet, which, made way for amateur and citizen journalist to make a name for themselves within the industry.
This was happening throughout the s, however, once the mid s began, the introduction of technologies such as the smartphone increased the ability to access the internet and made it so that individuals were able to use it globally and on the go. With these technological advancements, individuals were able to participate in journalism, like never before. Pictures or videos could be uploaded online in a matter of minutes and this paved the way for social media to grow as a strong producer in the industry. In , there are a number of different social media platforms through which people can access for their news.
Many large corporations have even started to shift their focus onto internet sites, such as Facebook or YouTube and this has also made it easier for the existence of Alternative Media groups to exist. This transition into a digital realm of media has created many new possibilities for people to participate in journalism and it is due to the technological advancements such as the internet and smartphones.
The site recently launched for Arlington, Virginia. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. The majority of the content produced by these amateur news bloggers was not actually original content, but curated information that was primarily monitored and edited by these various bloggers. This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. Radio exploded in importance during World War II, but after was overtaken by television news.
As society continues to move forward in a digital age new possibilities in the realm of technology emerge and can be associated with the journalism industry. New devices such as Virtual Reality , open new avenues, which media companies and people will be able to participate with journalism. As society continues to move towards embracing technology as part of their lives, citizen journalism should increase in accessibility and participation.
Dan Gillmor , the former technology columnist for the San Jose Mercury News , is one of the foremost proponents [ citation needed ] of citizen journalism and founded a nonprofit, the Center for Citizen Media, [62] to help promote it. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation 's French-language television network also has organized a weekly public affairs program called, "5 sur 5", which has been organizing and promoting citizen-based journalism since Jay Rosen , a journalism professor at New York University, was one of public journalism's earliest proponents.
Professor Charles Nesson , William F. One of the leading proponents [ citation needed ] for citizen journalism in Australia is Margo Kingston , author and former political journalist for the Sydney Morning Herald. It was on this site that Kingston published an exclusive story that the Australian Prime Minister, Tony Abbott , had inappropriately claimed expenses for promoting his book. Maurice Ali, a citizen journalist from Canada, founded one of the first international citizen journalist associations called the International Association of Independent Journalists Inc.
The association through its President Maurice Ali have published studies and articles on citizen journalism, attended and spoken at UNESCO [67] and United Nations events [68] [69] as advocates of citizen journalism worldwide. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. Not to be confused with Civic journalism. This article has multiple issues.
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Retrieved 21 May The Revolutions will be Blogged: Cyberactivism and the 4th Estate in Egypt. Doctoral Dissertation, American University, Retrieved September 8, What is "alternative journalism"? Theory, Practice and Criticism 4, no. Retrieved March 22, Brazilian Journalism Research 2, no.
Arab bloggers as citizen journalists Transnational. Fissures in the mediascape: An international study of citizens' media. The Hampton Press Communication Series. Retrieved January 8, The Networked Information Economy". Retrieved January 7, Archived from the original on August 9, Retrieved December 19, Hollywood's War Against the Digital Generation, chapter 8.
Some Conclusions from Iran and Egypt". Al Jazeera's key to successful reporting of Arab uprisings". Cyberactivism and the Role of Women in the Arab Uprisings". Occupy Wall Street, Broadcasting Live". Retrieved October 29, — via newsfeed. UC San Diego students. Retrieved 13 September Recent advances in information and communication technology have facilitated revolutionary change in the publishing technology available to individuals. Ubiquitous and low-cost access to the Internet has provided a means for a new type of news intermediary to emerge: A case study of the emergence of a self-organizing social entity - a dynamic virtual news network - following the South Asian tsunami is examined.
Co-adaptive technology and organizational structures in tsunami warning systems".
The journalists who turned the world upside down: Voices of Another Information [Dr. Roberto Savio RS, Phil Harris, M. Victoria Malvar, Anette Dujisin] on. To save The Journalists Who Turned the World Upside Down: Voices of Another Information eBook, remember to click the link beneath and download the ebook.
Editors were senior party leaders and often were rewarded with lucrative postmasterships. Top publishers, such as Schuyler Colfax in , Horace Greeley in , Whitelaw Reid in , Warren Harding in and James Cox also in , were nominated on the national ticket. Kaplan outlines the systematic methods by which newspapers expressed their partisanship. Paid advertising was unnecessary, as the party encouraged all its loyal supporters to subscribe: By the time of the Civil War, many moderately sized cities had at least two newspapers, often with very different political perspectives.
As the South began the task of seceding from the Union, some papers in the North recommended that the South should be allowed to secede. Those still in publication quickly came to support the war, both to avoid mob action and to retain their audience. After , William Randolph Hearst , Joseph Pulitzer and other big city politician-publishers discovered they could make far more profit through advertising, at so many dollars per thousand readers. By becoming non-partisan they expanded their base to include the opposition party and the fast-growing number of consumers who read the ads but were less and less interested in politics.
There was less political news after , apparently because citizens became more apathetic, and shared their partisan loyalties with the new professional sports teams that attracted growing audiences. Whitelaw Reid , the powerful long-time editor of the Republican New York Tribune , emphasized the importance of partisan newspapers in As the country and its inhabitants explored and settled further west the American landscape changed.
In order to supply these new pioneers of western territories with information, publishing was forced to expand past the major presses of Washington D. Most frontier newspapers were creations of the influx of people and wherever a new town sprang up a newspaper was sure to follow. Many of the newspapers and journals published in these Midwestern developments were weekly papers.
Homesteaders would watch their cattle or farms during the week and then on their weekend journey readers would collect their papers while they did their business in town. One reason that so many newspapers were started during the conquest of the West was that homesteaders were required to publish notices of their land claims in local newspapers. Some of these papers died out after the land rushes ended, or when the railroad bypassed the town. The American Civil War had a profound effect on American journalism.
Large newspapers hired war correspondents to cover the battlefields, with more freedom than correspondents today enjoy. These reporters used the new telegraph and expanding railways to move news reports faster to their newspapers. The cost of sending telegraphs helped create a new concise or "tight" style of writing which became the standard for journalism through the next century. The ever-growing demand for urban newspapers to provide more news led to the organization of the first of the wire services, a cooperative between six large New York City-based newspapers led by David Hale , the publisher of the Journal of Commerce , and James Gordon Bennett, to provide coverage of Europe for all of the papers together.
What became the Associated Press received the first cable transmission ever of European news through the trans-Atlantic cable in The New York dailies continued to redefine journalism. James Bennett's Herald , for example, didn't just write about the disappearance of David Livingstone in Africa; they sent Henry Stanley to find him, which he did, in Uganda. The success of Stanley's stories prompted Bennett to hire more of what would turn out to be investigative journalists. He also was the first American publisher to bring an American newspaper to Europe by founding the Paris Herald , which was the precursor of the International Herald Tribune.
Charles Anderson Dana of the New York Sun developed the idea of the human interest story and a better definition of news value, including uniqueness of a story. Their stated mission to defend the public interest, their circulation wars and sensational reporting spread to many other newspapers and became known as " yellow journalism.
More generally, newspapers in large cities in the s began using large-font multi-column headlines to attract passers-by to buy the paper. Previously headlines had seldom been more than one column wide, although multicolumn-width headlines were possible on the presses then in use. The change required typesetters to break with tradition and many small-town papers were reluctant to change. The Progressive Era saw a strong middle class demand for reform, which the leading newspapers and magazines supported with editorial crusades.
Building on President McKinley's effective use of the press, President Theodore Roosevelt made his White House the center of news every day, providing interviews and photo opportunities. After noticing the White House reporters huddled outside in the rain one day, he gave them their own room inside, effectively inventing the presidential press briefing.
The grateful press, with unprecedented access to the White House, rewarded Roosevelt with intense favorable coverage; The nation's editorial cartoonists loved him even more. Journalism historians pay by far the most attention to the big city newspapers, largely ignoring small-town dailies and weeklies that proliferated and dealt heavily in local news. Rural America was also served by specialized farm magazines. By most farmers subscribed to one. Their editors typically promoted efficiency in farming, With reports of new machinery, new seats, new techniques, and county and state fairs.
Muckrakers were investigative journalists, sponsored by large national magazines, who investigated political corruption, as well as misdeeds by corporations and labor unions. The January issue of McClure's marked the beginning of muckraking journalism, while the muckrakers would get their label later. Louis", in McClure's October issue was the first muckraking article. President Roosevelt enjoyed very close relationships with the press, which he used to keep in daily contact with his middle-class base.
Before taking office, he had made a living as a writer and magazine editor. He loved talking with intellectuals, authors and writers. He drew the line, however, at expose-oriented scandal-mongering journalists who during his term set magazine subscriptions soaring with attacks on corrupt politicians, mayors, and corporations. Roosevelt himself was not a target, but his speech in coined the term " muckraker " for unscrupulous journalists making wild charges. The quality of reporting increased sharply, and its reliability improved; drunkenness became less and less of a problem.
Freedom of the press became well-established legal principle, although President Theodore Roosevelt tried to sue major papers for reporting corruption in the purchase of the Panama Canal rights. The federal court threw out the lawsuit, ending the only attempt by the federal government to sue newspapers for libel since the days of the Sedition Act of Roosevelt had a more positive impact on journalism -- he provided a steady stream of lively copy, making the White House the center of national reporting.
Rampant discrimination against African-Americans did not prevent them from founding their own daily and weekly newspapers, especially in large cities, and these flourished because of the loyalty of their readers. Russwurm and Samuel Cornish. By the 20th century, African-American newspapers flourished in the major cities, with their publishers playing a major role in politics and business affairs, including.
As immigration rose dramatically during the last half of the 19th century, many ethnic groups sponsored newspapers in their native languages to cater to their fellow expatriates. The Germans created the largest network, but their press was largely shut down in They had the effect of introducing newcomers from Eastern Europe to American culture and society. Today, Spanish language newspapers such as El Diario La Prensa founded in exist in Hispanic strongholds, but their circulations are small.
Broadcast journalism began slowly in the s, at a time when stations broadcast music and occasional speeches, and expanded slowly in the s as radio moved to drama and entertainment. Radio exploded in importance during World War II, but after was overtaken by television news. The newsreel developed in the s and flourished before the daily television news broadcasts in the s doomed its usefulness. News magazines flourished from the late 19th century on, such as Outlook and Review of Reviews.
However, in Henry Luce transformed the genre with Time , which became a favorite news source for the upscale middle-class.
Luce, a conservative Republican, was called "the most influential private citizen in the America of his day. Time summarized and interpreted the week's news. Life was a picture magazine of politics, culture and society that dominated American visual perceptions in the era before television.
Fortune explored in depth the economy and the world of business, introducing to executives avant-garde ideas such as Keynesianism. Sports Illustrated probed beneath the surface of the game to explore the motivations and strategies of the teams and key players. Add in his radio projects and newsreels , and Luce created a multimedia corporation to rival that of Hearst and other newspaper chains. Luce, born in China to missionary parents, demonstrated a missionary zeal to make the nation worthy of dominating the world in what he called the "American Century.
By the late 20th century, however, all the Luce magazines and their imitators such as Newsweek and Look had drastically scaled back. Newsweek ended its print edition in Following the emergence of browsers, USA Today became the first newspaper to offer an online version of its publication in , though CNN launched its own site later that year.
Bankruptcy loomed across the U. Chapman and Nuttall [ who? The result, they argue, is that journalism today is characterized by four themes: Nip presents a typology of five models of audience connections: He identifies the higher goal of public journalism as engaging the people as citizens and helping public deliberation.
Investigative journalism declined at major daily newspapers in the s, and many reporters formed their own non-profit investigative newsrooms, for example ProPublica on the national level, Texas Tribune at the state level and Voice of OC at the local level. In , James W. The field was dominated by a Whig interpretation of journalism history.
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. History of American newspapers. Social and Economic Networks in Early Massachusetts: Benjamin Franklin's Printing Network: Disseminating Virtue in Early America. University of Missouri Press. Teeter, "Press Freedom and the Public Printing: Pasley, "The Tyranny of Printers": A History, Macmillan, 3rd ed. Kaplan, Politics and the American press: