Hunted: An Introduction to the Binda Universe

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To appear in Pacific Journal of Mathematics. FA ; Group Theory math. GR ; Operator Algebras math. Jill and John Kinahan argue that the Lee , p. In addition, 27 ent historical interpretations. The main reason for cattle and 2 goats that had died from disease and the ambiguity is probably that there is no self evi- predation were scavenged. Hence, of animals dent link between pottery and pastoralism. This is related to the fact that the circular surface units, 2 metres in diameter. The preparation of sour milk and other dairy products, top-layer, 8 cm deep, yielded only one definite and the main food of milch pastoralists are generally two possible cow bones, 8 bones of wild mammals, prepared in gourds or containers of woven organic 1 of gerbil, 2 of birds and 1 of frog.

The single strategically situated between moist woodland, dry remain of domesticated cattle constituted 4. In addition, the excavation revealed about phosphorus deficiency. Potsherds are also destroyed by post- large amounts of bone from livestock. One example depositional formation processes Frank , p. In marginal environments, such as Omaheke, site contained pottery, Late Stone Age microlithic animals pastured on soils lacking phosphorus may tools, bone arrow points, iron beads, specular hema- develop a deficiency that results in a pica, or a crav- tite, and a few copper and glass beads.

Despite its ing for phosphorus. In the search for phosphorus close vicinity to Divuyu and N! The date fits well with the dates from bone and animal residues John Kinahan , p. Omutjise However, at this site, owing to the good strati- wombindu. Today, vaccine as well as external nu- graphical control and preservation, it is possible to trients have been used since the Independence gain some further insights.

The deposits dated to Byrnes ; Katjiua pers. Earlier levels with addition, it was noted that almost no remains of the pottery and iron beads contemporary with the sites at goats, sheep and cattle that were butchered in the Divuyu and N! The ity and importance of wild foods to people during practice will unavoidably affect the chances of find- the period when agropastoralism was known and ing bone on pastoral sites. The example quencies in archaeological assemblages are useful illustrates that an iron-using pastoral land-use re- for discussing social, environmental and spatio- gime may include sites that indicate hunting and temporal heterogeneity, rather than an archaeologi- gathering, and that have a continuous use of stone cal tool for distinguishing pastoralists from hunters.

However, there is no logical explana- The assemblages show the variety of practices that tion for why iron should replace stone directly after appear in the landscape and different access to pot- the introduction. Instead, it must be presumed that tery, cereals, metals, game and livestock Walker the amounts given were rather limited and not ; Hall ; John Kinahan On the contrary, it seems necessary surrounding the area was the incentive for the eco- to acknowledge that a pastoral land-use regime will nomic diversification and specialisation of a regional result in sites that do not contain the key indicators agropastoral economy Denbow , p.

The from a conventional archaeological point of view early pastoral settlements in the more productive see also Hall ; John Kinahan ; Vansina areas, e. Tsodilo Hills, are archaeologically dis- ; Sullivan a. Never- With certainty, it is possible to say that pas- theless, as discussed above, there are problems with toralists in the Kalahari, presumably in the past as finding comparable evidence for livestock herding in well as in the present, had to develop local practices the marginal Kalahari savanna.

Furthermore, dif- As discussed, an obvious example of archaeological ferent site locations present different potentials for knowledge which to some extent has reached uni- the preservation of archaeological materials. From versal significance is the notion that pastoralism is this perspective, it is perhaps not surprising that the correctly represented by faunal remains of livestock archaeological materials that appear over the south- and pottery, and hunter-gatherers by wild fauna and ern African continent from the two last millennia stone technology.

However, already in Childe indicate differences in composition and in relative p. He re- Sadr contains pottery and stone tools from fers to the risks involved with archaeological inter- caves and open air sites from a range of various en- pretation based on lack of evidence. When consider- search on other issues in southern Africa. By using a ing archaeological preservation and the environ- conventional definition of social complexity and mental variation, it seems equally important to add a urbanism, mainly based on examples from Europe or social matrix based on the linguistic, cultural and the Middle East, the development of complex socie- social diversity of the region Hall , p.

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After this, the forms for pas- obscure in the archaeological record. For this reason, toral production can be expected to multiply and it as Paul Sinclair has noted, the urban identity of east- can be assumed that these processes will result in a ern and southern Africa was not widely accepted as variety of ways in which livestock herding will ap- an African achievement By using alternative pear in the archaeological record.

A preserved artefact types that appear in the archaeo- second example is the migratory framework com- logical assemblages are possible to compare in a monly used for explaining the introduction of crop diagram. I believe that comparisons of relative fre- farming in southern Africa. Huffman ; Elphick ; Walker , p. The problem with this view, however, ; Smith , it fails to acknowledge that the is that it is based on an assumption that so far has introduction of new plant species occurs in parallel never been explicitly tested.

On the hydro- has criticised the focus on technological and faunal geological map of Namibia it can be estimated that remains. However, recent research tion. His opinion seems highly relevant when dis- has indicated that the hydrogeology of the Kalahari cussing the pastoral history of Omaheke.

Rather, pastoral knowledge is embed- porary pastoral society living in a marginal envi- ded in a landscape and based on the interaction be- ronment, it becomes extremely difficult to demand it tween the herds and local opportunities for finding for a prehistorical counterpart. Moreover, an ap- fodder and water. This is best illustrated by the fact proach that fails to acknowledge that a pastoral land- that present day herders in the region, in contrast to use regime also results in sites that do not contain the conventional opinion, dig wells for watering what can be considered the key indicators, might their livestock.

Furthermore, as will be described in also fail to see other indications of pastoralism that this thesis, remains of artificial wells appear as a might even better tools for diagnose than the ones regular feature in the landscape. This contradicts the traditionally used. Rather than assume that the ar- conventional view and furthermore it provokes the chaeology of Nyae Nyae-Dobe reflects an avoidance question whether wells, supposedly a tangible fea- of herders in the past, it seems at least more stimu- ture in the archaeological record, can serve as indi- lating to assume that the archaeology reflects the cators for livestock herding.

However, to be able to limitations of the conventional approach for identi- address the question, it is necessary to first examine fying the practice of livestock herding, and from this the relationship between livestock herding and wells. Ingold ; Cribb history of Omaheke lies in the interface between the ; John Kinahan , ; Smith , ; ambiguity of pastoralism in the archaeological re- Holl ; Blench ; Mitchell The latter view is still used as the characterised by the use of domestic animals to con- main explanation for the presumed avoidance of vert forage to meat and milk John Kinahan , p.

For example, it has recently been Pastoralism is one of the key production sys- argued that herders cannot have been present in the tems in the drylands of the world Blench Africa and Siberia Blench , p. Continuity tion of property in livestock. However, Sadr has recently especially apparent when the livestock is transferred interpreted sheep remains found on hunter-gatherer alive between successive owners ibid.

Ownership sites as owned and herded by hunter-gatherers. In his is in general characterised by the individual and the view, the hunter-gatherers maintained an egalitarian result is that the basic unit of productive labour and foraging economy combined with ownership of consumption for pastoralists is the family or the animals — a low-intensive form of livestock herding household unit Ingold ; John Kinahan ; — that according to Sadr has little to do with pastor- Cribb Brief localized periods of more intensive ani- A second characteristic trait of pastoral pro- mal husbandry, that may appear as pastoral, could duction is the accumulation of livestock Ingold arise in this setting as a result of incoming pastoral , p.

A pastoralist always seeks to keep the peoples or by internal tensions in the hunter society numbers of their stock high enough to remain viable Sadr , pp. The question is how these as independent herds. Examples are high labour demands and operational definition of pastoralism.

In addi- ing, gathering and trade Cribb ; Smith ; tion, archaeologists have preferred to associate ar- Lau ; Jill Kinahan ; Blench ; Mitchell chaeological materials with environmental features Furthermore, it can be noted that the pastoral as reflecting site location preferences. Such explana- mode of production requires herders, which equals tions for site location have also been criticised for people that keep livestock without owning them becoming deterministic in following external causes Hitchcock , p.

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However, water can never be as integrative towards non-pastoralists Schapera reduced to a secondary determinant for site location ; Lau ; Denbow , while others have in southern Africa. Blench has argued that hunters and herders ments are access to water for the livestock. Using rain-fed agriculture Gewald , p. Pastoral- data from the weather station in Maun, east of the ism, on the other hand, is generally defined as the Okavango Delta, Lee estimated that in a run of 46 most effective way of using land with low rainfall years July to June with an annual aver- Smith In other words, two weather stations, Shakawe and Ghanzi, in the probability of drought occur at Maun is about Ngamiland, Botswana Fig.

In this period, two years in five, and of severe drought, one year in Shakawe in the north received Ghanzi, in the south, re- the notion of Ellis who stressed that when ceived an average of Estimates calculated for the area be- take place as often as twice per decade. The average amounts of rainfall estimated for the region indicate a semi-arid climate.

A semi-arid climate is characterised by hot summers and moder- ate to cool winters. During the winter June to Au- gust , the night temperature may fall below zero. However, a focus on rainfall averages may obscure the extreme variability of the rainfall in a semi-arid environment. A semi-arid ecosystem is governed by the annual seasonality of dry and rainy phases. Rain clouds build up in the summer months Figure 2. The variability of rainfall in a semi-arid September-February and fall as thunderstorms.

The figure is based on daily rainfall The rainfall of a semi-arid environment is infrequent recordings at the weather stations Shakawe and and has a localised distribution. In addition, the fre- Ghanzi over the period Data provided by quency of drought years, referring to years with the Meteorological Services of Botswana. It is notable how the rainfall fluctuates and ell The new interest is based on a new theo- how the curves occasionally diverge, reflecting the retical understanding of arid and semi-arid environ- high spatio-temporal variability of the system see ments, which have led to a re-assessment of pastoral Lee , Table 3.

It region occurred in the s Sweet Between has been noted that plant production is determined June and February , nearly cattle by the variable rainfall and seems unaffected by died, i. The next severe drought Extended droughts result in intermittent die-offs that occurred in the period owing to three will keep herbivore densities below equilibrium consecutive years of poor rainfall.

Rather, the systems 7. The idea that Omaheke was avoided levelled hierarchy of water places.

The lower strate- by herders because of detriment to the vegetation, as gies of the water collecting hierarchy were based on suggested by Smith and Lee , is not supported the gathering of water-rich roots, tubers and melons, by this theory. In nonequilibrial environments, live- and by collecting water from hollow trees Lee stock populations rarely reach levels likely to cause , pp. In the drier parts of the Kalahari, peo- irreversible damage and subsequently the risk of ple procured sand moisture by using so called straw- environmental degradation can be considered as or sip-wells.

The most important level of the variation. As the waterholes held system is spatially and temporally heterogeneous. However, Lee added that most of these with vegetation that provides fodder and browse. This is probably climate and the regularity of drought conditions it related to the presumption that the herders are recent seems as though it has been necessary for the herd- arrivals in the area and that when they came, they ers to develop viable mechanisms for coping with were not attracted by the natural resources: Since livestock herders are depend- disturbances of the early nineteenth century.

It ent on key resource areas for satisfying the needs for should be remembered that the best pans took many water and fodder during the scarcity of the dry sea- years to find, and they could not be exploited ade- son, it can also be suggested that practice associated quately until the settlers learnt to sink bucket-wells — with places that can be considered key resource ar- another recent development [in the Kalahari] Kuper eas would be useful for archaeologists in assessing , p.

Today, people in Omaheke use water from deep During the severe drought in , Lorna Mar- drilled boreholes for consumption, livestock and for shall observed how Herero and Tswana livestock sustaining the dry season. The places introduced earlier. Two boreholes were drilled in noted for wells are indicated on Figure 2. Based on the statements of the people living deep wells were dug nearby Vivelo Sometimes the names reflect the scale of the water source.

The prefixes are tapping the resource, for instance by usually followed by a name that signifies the charac- digging a well, he then indisputably teristics of the place, the water or the person that is owned the product of his effort , but he associated with the well Lindholm, pers. Since he was first in the , p. One or several settlements could use area, he had first claim to the resource.

He was amazed by the number arrival expressed his recognition of the of herds that came to the wells. Shortly after first herd had arrived, all Wells and well rights are acquired and maintained in the wells were occupied. Tradi- that a new herd with hundreds of sheep and cows tionally, such networks were largely structured by would come out of the bush to drink at the wells.

Initial rights to inheritance were granted , p. It is estimated that these line respectively. Instead of de- pp. In Otjiherero, such pans German sources such as K. However, few archae- , p. In addition, the pans were used in the ologists in southern Africa have incorporated well rainy season as temporal grazing camps in order to sites in their studies. All the sites were centred on a series bach ; Wilmsen b. The work includes of wells dug in the streambed John Kinahan In archaeology, wells have ting a tree log with manufactured steps in the well.

The maintenance of a well involves cleaning Above I have discussed how the main eco- the well from soils and dung. Seen over time, a well logical constraint for dryland pastoralism is the is also used, re-used, and rebuilt several times. In availability of dry season water and fodder re- Omaheke today it is frequently declared that if you sources.

By a review of intensity of herding and watering domestic stock in recent ecological research, historical and anthropo- the dry season. Vivelo reports and the practice of digging wells. The link can be how large investments, not only in labour, but also motivated from the pastoral ambition of accumulat- in technology e. Moreover, the pastoral mode of production the s Vivelo In the Middle East and in useful indicators for pastoral land-use in the Kala- Europe, archaeological studies on wells are rela- hari.

In addi- time of the ethnographical investigations in the sec- tion, the interior saw major processes of downwarp- ond half of the twentieth century. In order to fill this ing Haddon The geological processes gap, the research area was outlined in a south-west formed a huge inland basin and induced major north-easterly direction following the general char- changes in the fluvial systems of the sub-continent.

To the west, the research the rivers were back-tilted into the heartland of the area is delineated by the western boundary of the Kalahari basin, the Okavango-Makgadikgadi System Okavango-Epukiro catchment. Alexest and Rooiboklaagte constitute the southern One of the most important implications of an inter- boundary.

The border to the Kaudum Game reserve nal drainage system is that it retains all sediment and defines the northern boundary, the eastern boundary transports it to the low-lying areas, where they are coincide with the border to Botswana. The research deposited Wilkinson , p. Over time, more area is fully situated within the Okavango-Epukiro sediment accumulated in the Kalahari basin. After catchment area on the western margin of the Kala- deposition, the sediments have been modified and hari basin Fig.

However, field Features of the pre-Kalaharian geology de- researchers active in the area depict a greater, some- termined the general structure of the basin and its times subtle diversity mediated by topography, cli- sedimentary history. Moreover, they continue to mate, geomorphology, soil thickness and land-use contribute to the outlook of the current landscape. Lee ; Powell , p.

The geology underlying the Kalahari sediments con- The Kalahari basin is a large structural de- sists of various rock types dating from the Precam- pression that resembles a trough. In study the area on a much larger spatio-temporal the Kalahari sand mantle, the underlying geology is scale and as one of the main drivers behind the de- seldom exposed, but exceptions are a series of river velopment of the Kalahari drainage system and valley exposures and some isolated ridges and insel- sedimentary history Dardis et al. The ridge Geology extends in a north-easterly direction from the Na- The break-up of the southern hemisphere super- mibian Highland area towards the Lake Ngami.

The continent Gondwanaland was initiated approxi- ridge is a sub-outcrop largely consisting of sedi- mately million years ago in the Cretaceous- ments ranging from coarse gritstones to mudstones Tertiary period. Wells of Experience Figure 3. In the area south of the Lake Ngami, the ridge out- constitutes its most notable topographical features. Additional inselbergs The ridge rises to an altitude of metres found in the western Kalahari are the already men- m. The Aha Hills is the landscape. The ridges include Precambrian dolomite, only ridge that extends into the research area and shale and quartzite.

Dunes also reservoir of groundwater Lee , p. However, some exceptions can be depression and the Okavango Delta, which enhanced noted, especially in association with the edges of the further sedimentation of the Kalahari Reeves ; river valleys. The Okavango Delta stabilized by vegetation. The basin area is Pleistocene. Directly west of the Okavango Delta seismitically still active; several modern earthquake Fig.

In addition, a row of river valleys was drains the Angolan Highlands. The delta environ- formed by the drainage related to the deposition of ment is characterised by extensive permanent and the Kalahari sediments and the wetter conditions of seasonal swamps. The delta feeds Lake Ngami and the late Pleistocene. In Otjiherero, these valleys are called omu- 3. The highest point of the research area, ap- ramba sing, plural: From this point, Epukiro, which incorporates the arms of Alexest and the landscape slopes down towards the northeast and Elandslaagte, the Rooiboklaagte, the Eiseb with the more significantly to the east.

The Otjumunguindi Otjinoko, the Otjozondjou and the Daneib. After the area denotes the middle part of the research area. It funnel-like Eiseb Graben these omiramba merge to is named after the cattle post that functioned as the form one single valley. The Omuramba Eiseb be- main base during fieldwork. The lowest point of the came central for this study since the main road research area, approximately m. The word Eiseb ated further east, in the Eiseb Graben Simmonds is presumably of Khoe affinity; in Otjiherero the , a low-lying area between the Ghanzi Ridge name of the Omuramba is ua Pata Rohrbach Kangwadum stretch of the Okavango Delta.

The Aha Hills constitutes a in a straight easterly direction towards the Okavango plateau extending west with a higher ground that Delta. These valleys constitute the general Dobe divides the catchment area in two parts. North of northeastern part of the fieldwork area and the Nyae the Aha Hills, the Nhoma Omuramba takes an east- Nyae area will signify the plateau area directly west northerly direction and later turns east towards the of the hills. A system of parallel longitudinal sand dunes 8 to 80 Kalahari sediments km in length and 1.

Much of the Kalahari beds is lowest towards the Ghanzi Ridge calcrete is pedogenic, i. In the Eiseb Graben up to m thick bonate Hall , pp. On a regional scale, the layers have been noted Simmonds , p. The occurrence of pedogenic calcrete varies in different base of the Kalahari beds reflects post- areas of the Kalahari and tends to increase along Gondwanaland drainage and usually includes thin with the rainfall gradient. They are well drained, weakly devel- cles that subjects the sediment to wetting and drying oped, fine sand-sized and light and lacking in soil Verhagen , p.

Although still ongoing, a ma- nifying high contents of ferric oxide. Over the soluble ferrous oxide that leaks out. The result is that period, more than 4 m thick calcrete crusts were soils with active drainage lack iron which is indi- deposited at some places in the Kalahari ibid. In cated by their white or grey colour. The outcrops have been ex- Poorly drained soils with high contents of organic plained by the down cutting of the rivers or by larger matter, often referred to as black cotton, are re- scale geological processes, such as the down- stricted to places with sheet drainage Limbrey warping of the Gomare and Thamalakane faults , p.

In the margins of the form rather localised lenses but extents of square omiramba in the central and eastern parts of the re- kilometres have been reported Lee , p.

The Post-depositional chemical activities within coarse karstified calcrete of the fault ridges is weak the sediments have resulted in a range of calcareous and eroded rocks have accumulated at the base and silicified sand, sandstone, grit and duricrusts forming extensive talus slopes Moon They occur inter- The genesis of the pans is this in turn can be considered as a cleansing process somewhat of an enigma and has been explained by that decreases the salinity of the pan. It will retain many of the ecological theory for the genesis of pans. He sug- subsurface features, for example clay and calcrete gests that the main mechanism for pans is animal under the soil as well as increasingly eroded and activity and, as I will outline below, the theory may permeable calcrete deposits in the margins Verha- have some further archaeological implications.

However, since the grassy pan The theory is based on the notion that animals will continue to be an aquitard with perched water, it on the savanna, wild and domestic, congregate at will continue to provide a contrast to the surround- depressions where rain-fed surface water will con- ing environment. In addition, standing water will centrate.

This results in a series of physico- its fresher water and its cycle of denudation and chemical processes, e. The bare clay pan signifies the ini- Verhagen proposes that the cyclical mecha- tial stage of the pan cycle Verhagen , p. The congregating firm the suggested period. Calcrete deposits have animals will increase owing to the possibility of contained archaeological materials or separate ar- reaching shallow groundwater by digging into the chaeological occupations.

For example, at the site pan. The pans landform, the calcrete pan Verhagen , p. The excavating processes that initiate to 50 cm. On the margins, the calcrete may be lo- a pan can easily be identified at present day cattle cally extensive; sometimes, low cliffs are formed. For this reason, it has been suggested produces a general barrenness of the pan and its that pastoral land-use in the past might be responsi- nearest surroundings. Sand and eroded calcrete will ble for some of the pans in the Kalahari John Kina- be blown from the pan and deposit on its leeward han, pers.

If a link between pans and pas- side, building up the characteristic lunette dune toral encampments and well sites can be confirmed Shaw , p. The increasing saline condi- this idea would surely have several archaeological tions of the pan eventually result in that the animals implications.

After Pans of various stages are found over the abandonment, plants colonise the pan, first at the whole research area. The largest number of pans in margins and later on the floor. The pan veld soils will result in more acid conditions and solution is basically constituted on a large depression in the channels will leach through the calcrete. In addition, south-western part of the plateau.

On holes and dolines. Karsts occur under widely vary- satellite images over the southern part of the re- ing environments and forms by solution processes search area, in the upper reaches of the Omuramba governed by subsurface flows of water. In addition, Eiseb a belt of small sinkholes, dolines and smaller it can be noted that the formation of karst landforms pans is clearly visible. In such areas, patches of sider this part of the Kalahari as a semi-arid savanna shrubs and bush can be noticed. According to the classification of W. Here the vegetation cover of the bushes and trees, including the characteristic bush- dune crests gradually transforms to open woodland tree species Acacia erioloba.

The northern part falls and the lower flats are characterised by more shrubs. In the southern part of Omaheke, there are no In general, two larger vegetation mosaics can trees, and in the Otjumunguindi area, trees are very be distinguished within the two general savanna rare. If found the mangetti grows as an individual biotopes: Some plant Nutshells have been found in archaeological con- species are restricted to only one habitat. In addition, the tambutti tree Spirostachys species occur over virtually the whole range. The tree is poisonous but the hard The sandy substrate wood is used for crafts.

The sandy substrate has few persistent water The Terminalia sericea with its light green sources, but on flat terrain pans with seasonal bodies silvery foliage also favours the loose sandy soils. It of surface water may appear occasionally Plate is a frequently noted species and appears both as a 3. The mosaic also includes green water re- shrub and as a small tree.

A forest inventory cross- sources, which refer to water stored in unsaturated ing the two broader savanna biotopes of Omaheke soils, hollow trees and plants Lee , p. The wood is hard and vegetation associations: The bark ley and the valley floor with compacted soils. The can be used for various cures and the foliage pro- undulating sandy plains with less or no dune forma- vides a valuable browse for animals van Rooyen tion can be considered as a fourth habitat, but seem , p. In the low shrubland surrounding the Termi- However, the delimitations are obscure and follow nalia, a series of other bushes and small trees e.

In the southern part of the research area apiculatum, C. The bark of Croton gratissimus is grinded to dispersed trees. The trees are usually stunted and a sweet smelling aromatic powder traditionally kept closer to bushes in size, but some trees may reach in tortoise shell containers decorated with beadwork. The loose sand SU Ochna pulchra grows as a bush or a of the valley slope and at the foot of the dunes is low tree and is said to be a characteristic species for characterised of open grassland with interspersed the sourveld.

The classes refer to the ous studies e. The classes are applied to individual plants or whole The bushes or low trees of Combretum her- landscapes. Old trunks are tilis, A. The bushes Grewia the crests, but also as dispersed bushes or young flava and Grewia flavensis have been found over the multi-stemmed trees on the slopes and in the valleys whole range of the sandy substrate, although they Coates Palgrave ; Berry They have berries low-lying areas in the end of local drainage systems, that can be eaten when ripe.

The distribution of the A. They supply a cool shade and nesting sites Grewia spp. The browse, especially the pods of the mediated seed dispersal Dean et al. The Herero in Omaheke do not use Combre- are sick and too weak to leave the homestead. In tum imberbe, Boscia albitrunca and Grewia flava as addition to shade, food and shelter, several of the fire-wood Lindholm, pers. The Terminalia African acacias can be considered as multi purpose prunioides favour areas with compacted grey sand trees with many other values Berry The tree has a hard wood water, their importance for the Kalahari ecosystem that is suitable for construction and firewood.

Also should not be underestimated Plate 3. In rela- found in the lower range is the multi-purpose bush tion to intense precipitation in the rainy season, sur- Peltophorum africanum and the Rhigozum trichoto- face flows may occur over short distances. In addi- mum and the Rhigozum brevispinosum low shrubs tion, the omuramba form the only consistent water that appear over the whole range, but most frequent sources, since they constitute a variety of sediments in compacted soils.

The omiramba are also recognised as routes tsamma melon, is a reoccurring plant. It provides a for deep aquifer recharge e. The creeper Indigofera flavicans and the herb characteristics and vegetation: Sansevieria and finally the cliffs of ancient calcrete outcrops. It grows in characteristic colonies and is not habitats that resemble each other, but will be left out very common in the southern parts of the research in this description.

The majority of the plant species area, but in the Nyae Nyae pan veld they can form that was noted for the sandy substrate mosaic appear rather extensive patches. In terms of soil and vegeta- Harpagophytum procumbens is commonly tion associations, the upper reaches of the omiramba found in the open areas of the dune valleys. It is a resembles the dune valley and the upper part of the weedy perennial tuberous plant with creeping stems. Twenty-nine dif- slope valley are species already noted for the sandy ferent traditional uses of the plant have been re- substrate.

To mention a few bush or the low tree of Albezia anthelmanteia. The examples, the plant has traditionally been used as an bark of the tree is considered as an anthelmintic for abortifacient, as an antibiotic, for diabetes, tubercu- example against tape-worms Coates Palgrave , losis and rheumatism. Today the plant is commer- p. On disturbed sandy soils in the omuramba cially harvested for the production of pharmaceutics valley slopes, the Gifblaar Dichapetalum cymosum in the treatment of degenerative rheumatoid arthritis, is a frequently recorded plant in the research area.

It osteoarthritis, tendonitis, kidney inflammation and has an underground stem and branches that spread heart disease. The plant is identified through dis- from Namibia. Harvest of the plant has improved persed patches of green leaves. Ac- and Schmidtia kalahariensis have been identified cording to Giess and Snyman , p. The grasses identified reflect the low noticed in association with minor localised depres- nutrients of the soil in Omaheke and generally pro- sions with sheet drainage.

The thickets contain out of the leadwood tree, which is situ- species such as Catophractes alexandrii, Dichro- ated far in the east, across the grass sa- stachys cinerea, Rhigozum brevispinosum, Grewia vanna, in the place known as Maakuku spp. These thickets occur mainly on or in the pe- short, light brown person [the ancestor riphery, of areas with sheet calcrete or on compacted of Aakwankala or! Kung] with big but- calcareous soils under a heavy grazing pressure.

Take, each of you what you want! Nangombe followed him peared Berry , p. Kung- ging pole, left by the others. Finnish missionaries working ordered them again, saying —Go, then, among the Ovambo at the turn of the nineteenth where you want to go! The vegetation structure of the pans is rela- donga. The low-lying areas in the end of these quently noted species in association with the pans drainage systems are similar to pans and are charac- are Ziziphus mucronata, Grewia flava, Catophractes terised of poorly developed sheet drainage. After alexandrii and several of the Acacias. In association rain relatively large areas can be inundated.

The with larger calcrete pans, the species structure con- floor is constituted on thick calcrete deposits and at tains larger tree vegetation and resembles the cal- the margins the calcrete can form low cliffs. Sink- crete areas of the omiramba. Some of the smaller The animal life dolines may have thick fillings of organic soils and In addition to the diversity of the plant species, the dense thistle growth.

The vegetation structure may Omaheke environment contributes to a rich animal in some places bear a resemblance to riparian wood- life, including several of the well-known southern land Plate 3. Heavily grazed areas commonly African invertebrates, reptiles and amphibians, birds covered by the plant Sida cordifolia. The Acacia and mammals Liebenberg Lee noted that 58 erioloba reaches considerable sizes in the omuramba mammal species, 90 bird species, 25 species of rep- setting, especially in association with the larger tiles and species of invertebrates, all together dolines Chapter 6.

Several dwarf shrubs, From the mid-nineteenth century, the hunting e. Geigeria ornativa and various succulents can be pressure had a great impact on the animal life in the noted in the undergrowth. The elephant Loxo- The baobab Adansonia digitata is restricted donta africana were hunted to such a degree that it to the Aha Hills and the Nyae Nyae area. The cheetah cies, especially famous for its shape and size. Sev- Acinonyx jubatus and zebra Equus burchelli , eral authors have noted the spiritual importance of previously present in the area Lee , p.

Lion Panthera leo and giraffe The baobab is also an important resource for Giraffa camelopardalis may occasionally be seen, food, water, shade and crafts.

Fibre from the bark is but seem to be more frequent in the northern parts of used for various purposes. Sometimes the elephants break the southern served by the hard outer shell Ekblom The fence of the Nyae Nyae Conservancy Fig. Fresh baobab leaves provide an edible vegetable similar to spinach that can also be used medicinally Coates Palgrave The hollowed-out trunk of a living tree pro- vides nesting sites for bees and many older trees are also able to store water, estimates up to litres are available Blench, forthcoming. The palm Hy- phaene petersiana appears in the Omatako Omu- ramba.

The farming can be said to represent European notions of agriculture based Species Observation area on private ownership and market principles. Many workers live with their families Red Hartebeest Alce- Nyae Nyae in small labour compartments or in small villages laphus buselaphus close to the farms Werner ; Suzman Gemsbok Oryx gazella Nyae Nyae, Otjumun- The communal farming areas are located on guindi, Otjinene the thicker Kalahari soils north and east of the free- Kudu Tragelaphus strep- Nyae Nyae, Otjinene siceros hold farming district.

Common duiker Sylvi- Nyae Nyae, Otjumun- capra grimmia guindi After Namibian independence, the homelands be- Springbok Antidorcas Otjinene came transformed to the current communal areas and marsupialis the tribal names were replaced with neutral names. Roan antelope Hippotra- Nyae Nyae The two Otjiherero-speaking groups Herero and gus equinus Mbanderu constitute the single largest language Carnivores: Current land-uses in the Communal Area pre- Elephant Loxodonta afri- Nyae Nyae sents an example of range land pastoralism, an eco- cana nomical form that combines subsistence herding Spring hare Pedetes cap- Otjinene with market economy.

In contrast to freehold tenure, ensis Scrub hare Lepus saxatilis Nyae Nyae the land is not subdivided into private ownership. Baboon Papio ursinus Otjumunguindi Instead, it is occupied based on communal owner- Porcupine Hystrix afri- Otjumunguindi ship and user rights under traditional authority and canus policies Sweet The livestock herding is gen- Ground squirrel Xerus Nyae Nyae, Otjinene, erally based on small cattle posts distributed accord- inauris Otjumunguindi Warthog Phacochoerus Nyae Nyae, Otjinene ing to social and environmental circumstance; it is aethiopicus low-technological and labour intensive.

However, Ostrich Struthio camelus Otjinene, Nyae Nyae small farmlands, usually for planting maize, are allocated to individual households in association to the homesteads. Over the last decades, southern and western fringes of Omaheke Fig. The population in the tural economy, which is most noticeable through commercial farming area mainly consists of descen- regular cattle auctions in the Otjinene, where cattle dents of the European settlers and, as described pre- are sold principally to buyers from the commercial viously, the establishment of new farms was most farming district see also Vivelo The hectares Sweet , p.

The current land-use system of Omaheke. An addi- cock , p. How- tional task of a CBNRM project is to find viable ever, the settlement scheme resulted in major social approaches to sustainable resource management. In disruptions, alcohol dependency and violence Bie- practise, this has resulted in that traditional eco- sele et al. Small set- environmental conservation. The current land-use regime sociated with a progressive and post-colonial ap- of the Conservancy is constituted on a generalised proach to environmental conservation in Namibia economy, which includes hunting, gathering and the Sullivan a, pp.

Basically it is based on the tending of small herds of livestock. Tourism and notion that the colonial annexation of Namibia re- craft making have gradually become more important sulted in the inhabitants of the current communal for generating income Hitchcock ; Powell areas in Namibia were legislatively divorced from ; Suzman The reason for this is that after Namibian pers.

The gov- land-use systems more or less subordinated to ethnic ernments of Botswana and Namibia made an agree- systems Fig. By drawing a transect from the ment of repatriation, although stipulating that any south to the north, the strategies for land-use range Herero going back to Namibia had to leave behind from commercial farming based on private owner- their herds and possessions, due to the foot-and- ship, a labour intensive livestock economy, followed mouth epidemic that affected Botswana at that time by a conservancy with a general hunting and gather- Byrnes The current ently, and have developed different conceptions and land-use in many ways resembles the cattle post strategies for managing their landscapes.

In next system in the south. Herds from the area are regu- chapter, I will position Omaheke in a historical larly taken through the quarantine camp at the cor- background. During this period, large socio-political or- background to Omaheke. A central concern will be ganisations, urbanism and international contacts to ask how the assumption of an unsuitable envi- extending over the inland region to the Oceans in ronment came into being.

The location of ; Jill Kinahan ; Juma ; Somadeva areas and places mentioned in the discussion below As discussed in Chapter 2, the understanding are given in Figures 2. After independence, a Mbukushu migrations into the northern Botswana large number of works directly or indirectly in- and the Okavango Delta to the earlier half of the volved with Namibian history can be recognized. Recent The source material has largely consisted of recently historical research from Angola supports this view available archival records from Namibia, Germany by showing how the dry periods between and and South Africa.

In addition, the effects of the Henrichsen ; Hayes et al. These processes stimulated the de- tion of the local communities Tlou ; Alnaes velopment of centralised political systems in the a, b; Williams The aim has been to move Huila highlands ibid. Williams relates the the focus from stereotyped ethnic and racial explana- early southward migrations of Otjiherero-speaking tions to more nuanced social, economic and political peoples as a byproduct of the slave trade in central understandings of the Namibian past s John Kina- Angola around These accounts can partially han ; Williams ; Gordon ; ; Lau explain why Otjiherero-speakers moved to the arid ; Gewald ; Jill Kinahan The pre- lowlands of northern Namibia and it is not unlikely colonial history and the effects of colonial rule in the that the ancestors to the present day!

Kung-speaking peripheral areas of the country are largely unre- peoples in Omaheke participated in these southward corded and depend on a combination of historical movements Wilmsen Here they Works on the period between the fifteenth and the established a state and met other Setswana- and eighteenth centuries from Namibia, as well as in Sekgalagadi-speakers, as well as Khoe-speakers Angola, Zambia, Botswana, South Africa, Zim- Tlou , pp. Some Khoesan and groups Coast indicate that the period for the first European of already present Setswana-speaking Kgalagadi contacts was energetic.

It was characterised by dy- with livestock seem to have moved further north into namic societies that connected large areas of the the region west of the Okavango Delta and Tsodilo southern African continent Williams ; Lau Hills at this time Tlou Map of the northwestern Kalahari showing places mentioned in the text.

Namibia were referred to at the time. In this setting, the Tawana hegemony and the the term for dispossessed Khoesan-speakers who medium for an intense trade between the coasts and had been closely involved in the Cape Colony. Ini- the inland evolved during the nineteenth century tially, until they had established their superiority Wilmsen a; Jill Kinahan Since the fifteenth century, these harbours, espe- Owing to the conflict, no European traveller entered cially Walvis Bay as the largest and the safest har- Namaland or Damaraland between and bour, had attracted Portuguese, Dutch and British Jill Kinahan , p.

The Oorlam leader Jonker seafarers Jill Kinahan , pp. In , the Afrikaner established his main settlement in the Dutch Cape Colony was founded in the south- centre of current Namibia, in a place near the current western part of present day South Africa. During the Capital Windhoek Lau , p. Few of the coast used indigenous middlemen Wilmsen them wrote about their experiences, although it is a; Jill Kinahan In , the Cape ex- possible to find exceptions Mossop From plorer James Alexander crossed the Orange River.

Alexander hoped to be able to promote the known and unknown. In general, the early Along the Namibian coast, the European ac- overland expeditions avoided the Kalahari and fo- tivities were more intense. In the s, the whaling cused on the highland area and the coast e. Alex- grounds outside Walvis Bay was discovered Fig. The general view on the Kalahari was 4. American whaling and fishing expeditions that it was a dry, barren and uninhabited wilderness.

Euro- lished on the Namibian coast and in the central parts pean merchants introduced mass-produced goods, of the country in places such as Gross Barmen, Oka- for example glass beads, earthenware and porcelain, handja, Otjimbingue and Otjikango Lau ; Ge- as well as tea and spices shipped from India and wald The invitation of the Tawana Kgosi i.

Chief or King first contacts resulted in expanded external trade, Letsholathebe, crossed the Kalahari from the south. The their production John Kinahan The British occupied the Cape Col- pursuits, and to the cultivation of their lands with a ony in Jill Kinahan , p. Letsholathebe, on the southern parts of Namibia Lau , pp. For example, Kambazembi the actual colonisation process Wolf , Wilmsen from Otjozondjupa had posts in the area around a, p. This route originated in Walvis Bay, Before the mid nineteenth century explora- the main harbour on the Namibian coast Jill Kina- tions, the popular view on the Kalahari was that of a han , p.

Khuiseb River up depopulated wilderness. However, the pioneers Gal- to the Swakop River and the mission stations on the ton , Maps, pp. From the high- could outline in detail the larger valleys of a com- land area it continued along the main valleys of the plex network of perennial and intermittent rivers that Okavango-Makgadikgadi drainage system: In addition, sob, Epukiro, Otjimbinde to the Ghanzi limestone they demarcated the locations of central places, such ridge.

Here over fifty pans and waterholes with al- as the Tsodilo Hills Sorilo Hill; Sorila and well- most twenty-five springs constituted the last stretch known trade centres such as Libebe Libabe at the of the way to Lake Ngami Guenther , p. Okavango River Williams The pioneers of the route In view of the fact that physically, the explor- were later followed by James Chapman and the artist ers had only reached a few places within the Kala- Thomas Baines who drew and painted people, ani- hari, it is likely that they based their maps on a pal- mals, birds and landscape Baines ; Tabler impsest of information; own observations, the Denbow and Wilmsen , pp.

The exploration and the map making were more of bringing the indige- nous geographical knowledge to the attention of the Europeans Wilmsen a; see also Johansson , p. In- stead they followed preexisting trade routes and Plate 4. After the initial contacts in the Kalahari, the courtesy of John Kinahan.

European activities increased rapidly. In the late s, it is estimated that more than Europeans The Omatako Valley connected the Namibian high- were operating in the western parts of the Kalahari lands with the Ovambo peoples who lived along the Lau Een considered the The early explorers shared the ambition of describ- Omatako Omuramba as well watered, but mainly ing their findings in the new world. The ac- stock herds, except for in periods of drought. The dryness and larger socio-economical aggregations controlled the the problems of finding water are constant themes in trade for cattle, ivory, ostrich feathers and copper.

Galton ; Andersson ; Work on improving the roads between the larger Livingstone ; Farini ; Hodson Fran- centres in the central parts of the country was initi- cis Galton wrote ated Dierks , p. The livestock trade developed a cling with pertinacity to a country which strong decentralised aspect involving the establish- after all seems to afford little else but ment of cattle posts in the peripheral areas to the hazard and hardships, ivory and fever. During the second half of The hardships helped to establish a scenic and ad- the nineteenth century, trade networks operated venturous background to the narrative that was in- widely across the Kalahari Gordon ; Wilmsen tended for a larger Euroamerican readership.

Even though a selective emphasis can be In the last quarter of the nineteenth century, noted in the descriptions of people, birds, and the sphere of exploitation of the European hunters mammals, they were often very detailed and carried and traders had increasingly moved north and east out within a scientific endeavour e. Andersson from the larger trade routes out to peripheral areas of The accounts also indicate that as members of the country e.

The Map 4, p. Over the eighteenth and nine- indigenous peoples occupied lower steps of the evo- teenth centuries, the expanding colonial activities of lutionary ladder within this perspective, in contrast the British in South Africa resulted in a series of to the newly arrived Europeans, who represented Afrikaner migrations to the interior parts of southern men on the frontier bringing civilisation and pro- Africa. One migration known as the Dorsland Trek gress e. Galton ; Een Such notions of reached Omaheke around The socio- Africa have long attracted the general reader in ideological foci of these Afrikaners seemed to have Europe and North America Schrire ; Gordon been on livestock with a strong basis in hunting, , However, in the accounts it can be indirectly By this they shared many similarities with the in- appreciated that the indigenous communities consti- digenous livestock economies and in many ways the tuted a wide-ranging and productive economy trekkers seem to have conformed to the existing largely based on hunting, cattle, trade and the min- socio-economic patterns ibid.

The nineteenth century is Nyae to settle in the southern parts of Angola. Examples are the Denbow and Wilm- ero, and the Mahereros, in the west and the Tawana sen suggest that 45 kg of ivory were hegemony of Sekgoma Letsholathebe in the east and exported from the Kalahari in the mid-nineteenth the Ovambo kingdoms in the north-west Tlou ; century.

The the figures were greater than this. The British Cape Colony, who had Kalahari. Few wrote trave- In response, the Cape Colony used their missionary logues and they seldom kept diaries or wrote letters. In , the British proclaimed the protector- traders and their activities Tabler ; Wilmsen ate Bechuanaland over their Tswana allies. How- a, ; Johansson The successor of ever, it seems that the German threat was exagger- Charles John Andersson, Axel Eriksson, who in the ated.

The mission cattle from the west to the east. At this time, the stations changed to become smaller towns and new exploitation of gold and diamonds had been initiated missions and settlements were established in periph- in the Transvaal. The aggregation of people in this eral areas of the colony Esterhuyse , pp.

In his letters to Sweden Eriksson describes research provides a number of valuable insights into how he used indigenous guides for finding the paths the Namibian societies at the time. However, little and the watering places. The route presumably went has been translated from German to English. Eriksson took the journey at made the most detailed investigations into the geog- least once in person in To- ; see also Johansson , pp.

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