Chaleurs argentines (French Edition)

Rallye d'Argentine 2018

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Programa para las Escuelas Comunes de la Capital Federal. In and , Plans were passed for secondary level National schools, Normal Schools teacher training establi-shments and Commercial Schools. These plans incorporated sports — not as physical exercise but as agonistic, competi-tive games — as part of physical education at school. At this point sports became fully accepted as a school subject. Their inclusion cannot be understood solely as a result of non-school factors — such as the expansion of sports practice to new social sectors or by interest in it being roused through the press and later through radio.

The pressure solely of sport instructors within the physical education field was not the only factor either. At this juncture, it was considered that sports added other benefits to the education of the human body.

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Besides the dynamics shared with games and their effect on energetic processes this supplementary argument secured the position of gymnastics , sports have other additional virtues. Freedom of movement as reflected in the development of a game, and in contrast to the static nature of gymnastics or a demonstration of calisthenics and the individual initiative that emerges from different situations in a game together with the pleasure that comes from playful competitive activities which allow effort to be sustained without apparent pain , combined with team work, promised new benefits in favor of social education and patriotism.

Normales y Especiales ; pp. In , insofar as the province of Buenos Aires was concerned, Horacio Levene Director of Army Gymnastics and Fencing designed a New Unique Method, which reintroduced the military component into school physical education to include, marching, positioning and exercises with weapons: The General Office of Physical Education and Culture shall indicate the weapons to be used in the instruction of shooting, and shall draft the corresponding instructions.

It is hereby recommended to Exhort the maintenance of the position of Attention when physiological reasons recommend it, and to keep order and aesthetics, which bring great pedagogic satisfaction [ Governor Fresco was a conservative politician with fascist ideas who admired Mussolini and feared communism would advance, imported by new Spanish immigrants arriving in Argentina after the Republican defeat in the Spanish civil war. El itinerario normativo de una asignatura escolar The free movements and games of the Argentine System had only a minor place in the Unique Method.

Initially, Levene relegated them in favor of a methodized and disciplined gymnastic exercises; later, he reserved them for younger age groups in primary school and for times when pupils showed signs of apathy or indifference. Freedom of movement, freedom in playing and freedom in learning flow immeasurably everywhere, so it would be fairer to call it a license.

During the first years of the twentieth century, Dr. His approach attempted to settle the debate between rational physical education scientific, physiologic versus empirical gymnastics, and, above all, to foster the advance of military gymnastics. In his thesis entitled Physical exercise at school from a health and hygiene standpoint , he developed the political, social and health reasons to justify why scientific or methodized gymnastics — with foundations in anatomy, physiology and psychology — should be taught in schools.

In his thesis he also proved and explained the intellectual process and mentions European authors in support of his ideas. In the more specific field of methods, he mentioned Demenij, Marey and Ling. At this point it should be noted that some Argentine physicians who had written theses on Social and school hygiene , The Influence of customs on health , Diets or on Medicine and Morals , for example allotted whole chapters to physical education or exercise, and accounted for similar theoretic influences names like Pinel, Esquirol, Cabanis, Ribot may be added to the list, in order to explain how the senses, will, character and intelligence function.

In , having been appointed Inspector of Physical Education for the National Council of Education, Romero Brest took responsibility for disseminating ideas among teachers, directors and inspectors of the public educational system, of physical education based on positivism - knowledge derived from sensory experience — anatomy, psychology and particularly, physiology. In several books and articles he revealed the main concepts of a system that would legitimize rational physical education as a school subject and the most appropriate method for schools - later called the Argentine System.

He describes his reform as social, since his aim was to modify the people and the race:. Despite his rejection of European methods, his recommended method was an eclectic summary of the exercises and activities drawn from each of them. Romero Brest saw that confirmation of its success as a social regeneration technique would be its extension to the popular masses and it was for that reason that he put the focus on the role of school. He proposed methodical, regular and rational physical education oriented to promote four factors.

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It has to be acknowledged that throughout the whole period there were dissenting voices regarding his proposals and his personality, but until the nineteenth thirties they did not manage to change the relationship between the forces that kept him in charge of physical education in Argentina. Needless to say, the conflicts and tensions arising from the military approach in the teaching of physical exercises were not exclusive to Argentina, nor were they initiated at the end of the nineteenth century.

As Mosso indicate [ 43 Scharagrodsky P. INEF And although the Argentine System held its position in the public education system until the nineteenth thirties despite attempts on several occasions by the sector representing the military perspective of physical education and supported by sportsmen who opposed Romero Brest to re-install military exercises in school practices — including in the form of School Battalions.

It should be mentioned that in Argentina School Battalions had not originated in schools, nor were they organized by civilian teachers. Their creation was at the initiative of the Sports Society — a sports association very close to the Army and its department of gymnastics and fencing.

The first appearance of students with military positions, activities and organization took place in the years prior to the celebration in of the Centenary of the May Revolution [ 46 th anniversary of the creation of the First National Government. Subsequently, in the years that followed the Centenary between and , these same groups tried unsuccessfully to introduce such exercises in school curricula in the province of Buenos Aires and in schools that fell under the responsibility of the National Council of Education.

One of the many ways in which the followers of the Argentine System made public their concerns regarding the military approach was via the Journal of Physical Education [ 47 This journal was the official publication of the Higher or National Institute of Physical Education and was edited in three different and successive stages: The time has come. Initially, there was an early attempt to introduce an unrealistic Bill in the House to allocate the direction, administration and techniques of physical culture to an independent association.

In the sports field, this association had proved to have certain propaganda capacities but in the field of school techniques its advocates' total lack of scientific ability has been evident. During the nineteen-twenties, active members of the army as well as athletes became increasingly critical of the Argentine System. Students should be enrolled directly in the second and third years [ 49 See Aisenstein A.

This organization was the outcome of the struggle by the teaching community to prevent the Commission from being monopolized by opponents. It successfully combined the viewpoints of the military sector, the sports sector and that of scientific physical education. However, the Technical Commission issued a study in which the status quo seemed unchanged. The Commission prepared a Bill for a law organizing national physical education under three distinct headings: It established that for bodily education under each of these headings a different type of exercise or practice was needed: This Bill was never discussed in Congress.

To terminate the explanation of ideas on physical education that were topical in Argentina, we should mention that besides the technical or scientific reasons that opposed physicians and teachers and members of the army and athletes, the main differences with France lay in the concept of citizenship, order and authority that derived from each position.

Both groups agreed on the benefits of physical exercise during childhood and that school was the best environment for its systematic development, but they strongly disagreed on the method, the type of discipline and the profile of those who were professionally capable of teaching it. The military maintained that children should get used to doing military exercises to strengthen their bodies and discipline their spirits and that the best way to achieve this was through the presence of army agents in schools.

They argued that vertical-type military discipline was not the most appropriate way to educate future citizens of the nation; instead, discipline should be based on republican reasoning and moral values and not on acceptance of hierarchical authority [ 51 Aisenstein A. A number of the writers whose opinions were discussed in Argentina and who were key players there were repudiated in France.

Opposed to sport, Grousset attached a great deal of importance to traditional French games but as far as he was concerned the basis was not physiological as it was for Lagrange and Demenij , but political. For him, games were a physical activity for the people and not the sports enjoyed by the aristocracy which he abhorred. Grousset was not a physician but a politician - at the age of 27 he was the Delegate for External Affairs for the insurrectional Paris Commune.

Quite the contrary, he considered that the values imbued by sport were extremely detrimental for equality and fraternity as they provided an individualist, elitist exercise model. However, other conflicts arose. Although he published the Revue des jeux scolaires from , it was the Swedish gestural form that he most favored a demonstration of the Nomadic nature of the theory and bodily technique. The Lendits that he helped to establish in were Swedish gymnastic exercises undertaken by a group in a public square or in a stadium.

This preference brought him into violent opposition with Demenij for scientific reasons. The latter reproached him for using a mechanical and not an energetic base. However, although he advocated cycling or races on foot within the Girondine Physical Education League, his assignment in Sweden between and convinced him that the Swedish method was ideal for school physical education in France. Let us be frank. Gymnastes et sportifs, Revue Scientifique Revue Rose. Demenij subscribed to quite another argument. He was an enthusiastic rationalist close to Muybridge, Marey and Mosso.

It was thus both a position of support and of defiance that motivated the rhetoric of the passage. The Swedes, the Swiss, the Germans [ This can be seen as a critique of any dogmatic position and above all of any single method, whether this be the Swedish, sports, German or French military. Demenij suggests a new eclecticism that sacrifices tradition and adopts the perspective of progress and modernity. Known laws on which Swedish gymnastics are based date from De Motu animalium, Borelli, However, Demenij discovered the work of Hirn, Chauveau and Marey and could not accept this solely mechanical basis.

These at least were the recent Nomad scientific concepts that he adopted in the perspective of advancing science: This point of view is found in the Manual of , but consensus forced mechanistic viewpoints to continue being mentioned in it as well as the military approach. This was very clearly expressed in the conclusions of the report to the minister that appeared in following a study trip, with the title: Physical Education in Sweden:. Demenij, through Nomad ideas, sought to bring out the eclecticism that he called the French Method.

He had in no way benefitted from the training in bioenergy that Demenij had received at the Sorbonne he seemed to know little about the subject prior to There was also a need for the two men to be differentiated in competitive terms. Their positions became more clearly stratified at the time of the first International Conference on Physical Education in Paris, linked to the Universal Exhibition from 30 August to 6 September Having alerted the Minister of the error he was making in P.

Demenij had become the greater authority and with that his French Method. Finally, on 13 February in an article entitled: He again criticized the book published by Demenij, J. Demenij concerns theory, that of Mr. Demenij, and in Belgium using the same method but retaining all its purity by Mr. Revue Scientifique ; II Demenij therefore designed a hybrid method that moreover gives no satisfaction to the critical spirit; Mr.

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Demenij, quoting Ling, in fact questions Swedish uniqueness when he says: Its disciples, on occasion too rigorous, do not accept the idea of this evolution and credit its system with being perfect and invariable. In any event, it is on the basis of this eclecticism derived from Nomad theories that Demenij was able to formulate a specific method recognized by the State itself.

He accomplished this in Evolution of Physical Education. This method was submitted to the French Biological Association on 11 June with the title: The importance of continuous, complete movement in direction and extent following curving trajectories on muscular development and education of nerve center coordination. Yet other more consensual players took part in this war over methods, specifically targeting, as in Argentina, the definition of a national system, and based on Nomad ideas.

Lagrange, who completed his medical doctorate in , devoted himself to the practice of athletics and research in the field of bodily physiology. He travelled Europe to study current methods.

The conclusion he drew from his travels was that gymnastics built strictly on the Swedish model was of little interest and that what was really of significance was an attractive exercise. He emphasized therefore the value of games, fresh air and sport though he considered games as being for adolescents. Based on a bioenergetics conception of the body, he also refuted practices that were too tiring. In , Lagrange was a member of the Education Reform Commission. He stated time without number that:. The human body compares, as a source of energy, with a machine that operates using heat.

Physiologie des exercices du corps. He was one of those involved in the development of the sports movement in France. The paper received the Vernois award accorded by the medical school. A report affirmed that: Imprimerie Nationale ]. There is a paradox in the fact that Lagrange took part not only in the Jules Simon Committee, but also in its institutional adversary: Physical Renaissance La Renaissance physique , a critique of English sports practice promoted by de Coubertin: Jules Simon and his colleagues; and if the Bordeaux Lendits are to be chaired by Mr.

Le Vrai Pierre de Coubertin. I regret to inform you that the League finds itself unable to be represented at the Conference [ These extracts provide clear evidence of the battle being fought in the heart of physical education over the definition of a National method. Lagrange was the pivotal point in the sense that for him any exercise was good exercise if it made use of the energetic process and if it implied not leaving young people and children confined in the class room only.

Again, these were Nomad ideas. In this, even though his method is built on ten activities: Just like Demenij, he sought to establish a French Method based on the natural method. His stamp is apparent in every paper from onwards. All these writers however, asked few questions on pedagogy in the strict sense.

Lagrange thought that the game was good for a child. A very rich topic for understanding the current of ideas on educating the body throughout the period covered by this article is the scientific and social movement known as eugenics. At the time it was said that Science would lead to the improvement of the human race depending on its hereditary composition, through the preservation of purity and the reproduction of adequate human specimens, and by avoiding transmitting the legacy of unfit specimens [ 77 Stepan N.

A hora da Eugenia: As the social application of knowledge on inheritance developed to improve livestock production, these new social ideas and policies - initially applied in England - circulated along with other ideas in those nations which, since the mid th century, conformed to streamlined State models transiting from traditional forms of organization with a central role accorded to religion, dogmatic ways of thinking and kinship-based organizations to modern ones secular, with rational ways of thinking and an organization based on a scientific approach.

From its beginnings in Europe, among public health specialists, eugenics was considered a minority, specialist perspective that reinforced the biological view of health as opposed to the environmental view held by most social reformers. At the same time it was not a single homogeneous movement.

Currents could be found that favored human improvement through modification of the environment social, cultural, and natural and others would suggest such improvement could be achieved through avoiding procreation by people considered inappropriate poor, alcoholic, mentally ill. Legions of immigrants from Europe would settle in Argentina. In this context some of the earlier eugenic ideas began to be part of the political agenda apparent in the work of the physician Emilio Coni, one of those promoting the legislation for procreation control.

Coni considered that such legislation would hasten the building of a modern progressive nation [ 77 Stepan N. A number of political events facilitated the proliferation of ideas of control and racial hierarchy through positive eugenics [ 78 Vallejo G. Vallejo G, Miranda M, Eds. Siglo Veintiuno ; pp. The Residence Act and the Social Defense Act were passed with the aim of controlling immigration and identifying and expelling those foreigners whose ideology did not match the liberal discourse.

Eugenics programs were developed more intensely between the s and s, when social issues like disorganized population growth, groups of foreigners that did not mix with the indigenous population, social upheaval caused by unionized workers began to worry the ruling classes. One of its promoters, who considered physical education as a modifying rational agent, affirmed:.

The above quotation indicates the importance of the environmentalist perspective; however, the hereditary perspective also has its place among the purposes of physical education when focused on developing the fitness of girls in order for them to adequately fulfill their role as mothers. During the same period or just a little earlier, generally in Europe and specifically in France, eugenics had a huge impact on gymnastics and physical education.

However, in France the distinction must be drawn between positive and negative eugenics. For Galton who was one of the first promoters of eugenics in Britain, it was essential to eliminate the weakest races and not mix the desirable lineage of the English upper class with that of lower social classes.

In fact, for Galton, the degeneration of civilization is related to the mixing of social classes. Preservation of desirable lineage necessitates firstly preventing intermixing and if necessary eliminating disabled and inferior specimens. Such is negative eugenics. In Gymnastique utilitaire , in , he defended the position that some people are members of the superior race and others, the larger proportion, are members of inferior races.

According to him black people would be unable to win any event in the Olympic Games because they were physically inferior; white people were superior. Physical education, gymnastics and sports were a way to make a selection and also to change genetic heritage in a single generation. They thought that such activity would be good for the future of the French race. Enrique Romero Brest was present at the Congress of Paris in , benefiting from conferences given at the Sorbonne by Nobel Prizewinning speakers.

Two such speakers, Alexis Carrel Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine in and Charles Richet Nobel Prize in , were defending positive eugenics and advocating physical education for all. Like Galton they believed that the second industrial revolution resulted in degeneration of the European race and that sport and physical education should be used to prevent such degeneration for the greater number. In the preface to the American edition in he wrote: And they may become highly destructive. On the contrary, Asiatics and Africans such as the Russians, the Arabs, the Hindus, are increasing with marked rapidity.

XI ] But following his early writing around , he became a strong supporter of positive eugenics. Charles Richet , author of an influential book on the subject of exercise: This is negative eugenics, but in the field of physical education in Europe and more precisely in France such theories were approved.

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The latter described the pitiful state of gymnastics instruction in French schools by comparison with those in Prussia and Scandinavia. The Circle taught infants and junior school teachers Instituteurs in the department of La Seine and in Paris. The Circle operated quite well until the death of Demenij in The Advanced Aptitude Certificate was the qualification required for teaching primary school children and older pupils to the age of 18, and for higher primary schools and the school leaving certificate the Aptitude Certificate was sufficient.

The Advanced level Certificate was required for training teachers and former military specialists in anatomy and physiology of effort. However, the first formal training for teachers transferring to the field of physical exercises occurred at the time a waiver training course was opened.

The curriculum included anatomy, physiology, child psychology, pedagogy and bodily techniques neo-Swedish gymnastics, physical education, the natural method, sport, in brief: Generally speaking, the students for this course were already qualified primary school teachers. They were considered hotbeds of communism and Freemasonry. The second manager of the ENEP , Ernest Loisel, was removed from his post and forced to retire from office in as a result of the Secret Societies decree 19 August and 27 February However, the French Method, largely imbued with the natural method, remained the official method.

In Argentina during the period under consideration, the training of education instructors took place in two types of institution: It was closed in and reopened in The Higher Institute of Physical Education was the result of a gradual process of understanding the need to train schoolteachers to teach physical education at schools.

Four more summer courses followed in , , and At the same time, three theoretical and practical courses of physical exercises were set up by decree in April to be undertaken by the teachers of the three Normal Schools in the city of Buenos Aires. Romero Brest, having completed his medical studies and during the time he ran the courses and delivered theoretical and practical classes, designed his system for the Argentine Method of Physical Education.

The Normal School of Physical Education was the result of the converting the Summer Course into a regular physical education course addressed to those who had obtained their teaching degree. Finally, the National Higher Institute of Physical Education, which was a further development of the aforementioned School, was also created through a National Executive decree.

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In addition to this Institute, the General Office of Shooting and Gymnastics should also be mentioned since many of its former students were key figures in the promotion and dissemination of military physical education, becoming fierce opponents of the Argentine System [ 86 Scharagrodsky P. This paper shows how integrated primary education, a minima Western, was made available to all. It also shows how the idea became Nomadic, spreading the availability of physical education and its institutional organization to many countries not only France and Argentina.

It can be seen too that the Swedish and German methods and the English sports method, were discussed and debated as much in France as in Argentina. Many writers were involved in the heart of the deliberations on structuring the activities and the institutional organizations for training physical education teachers both in France and in Argentina. Grousset was also a political protagonist in France yet no trace of him is found in Argentina.

Aisenstein A ; In both cases it is considered that a method drawing benefits from other systems should be adapted to the national temperament and therefore cannot replicate in extenso the practical exercises of other countries. In both examples there was local adaptation and recontextualization of the Nomad theories and practices. There are numerous similarities in the way compulsory, free physical education was set up in primary school in France and Argentina. Print edition purchase must be sold by Amazon.

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